{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]],"date-time":"2025-11-04T10:57:36Z","timestamp":1762253856098,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]],"date-time":"2021-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626048000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41706006, 42076011, U1806214"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41706006, 42076011, U1806214"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The estimation accuracy of tidal harmonic constants is of great significance to maritime traffic and port construction. However, due to the long sampling period of satellite altimeters, tidal signals alias the mesoscale ocean frequencies. As a result, the harmonic analysis is affected by mesoscale environmental noise. In this study, the influence of the mesoscale ocean variability (MOV) on the estimation of tidal harmonic constants was quantified by analyzing 25 years of altimeter data from the Topex\/Poseidon (T\/P) and Jason satellites in the South China Sea (SCS). The results indicated that the absolute amplitude differences (AADs) of the eight major tidal constituents before and after the mesoscale variability correction (MVC) were generally within 10 mm, and most were within 6 mm. For the relative impact, M2, O1, and K1 were not obviously affected by the MOV because of their large amplitudes, and the AADs generally accounted for less than \u00b110% of the amplitudes. As a tidal constituent with amplitude less than 2 cm in the SCS, the amplitude of K2 was significantly affected by the MOV, with the ratios of the AADs to its own amplitudes ranging from \u221264.79% to 95.99% in space. In terms of phase, the K2 tide was most affected by the MOV: 63% of the data points before and after correction were over \u00b15\u00b0, and the maximum and minimum values were 86.46\u00b0 and \u2212176.27\u00b0, respectively. The absolute phase differences of other tidal constituents before and after the MVC were generally concentrated within \u00b15\u00b0. The impact of the MOV on the evolution of tidal amplitudes in the SCS was also explored. It was found that the MOV can cause pseudo-rapid temporal variations of tidal amplitudes in some regions of the SCS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13142736","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]],"date-time":"2021-07-12T21:56:37Z","timestamp":1626126997000},"page":"2736","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["The Impact of the Mesoscale Ocean Variability on the Estimation of Tidal Harmonic Constants Based on Satellite Altimeter Data in the South China Sea"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Qian","family":"Yu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Qingdao Collaborative Innovation Center of Marine Science and Technology (CIMST), Physical Oceanography Laboratory, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8804-7772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haidong","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Marine Science and Numerical Modeling, First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"}]},{"given":"Yanqiu","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou 310012, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Zhuhai 519082, China"}]},{"given":"Xianqing","family":"Lv","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Qingdao Collaborative Innovation Center of Marine Science and Technology (CIMST), Physical Oceanography Laboratory, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6611(98)00010-X","article-title":"Oceanic Tidal Angular Momentum and Earth\u2019s Rotation Variations","volume":"40","author":"Chao","year":"1997","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.1997.06","article-title":"The Moon, of Course","volume":"10","author":"Munk","year":"1997","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11411","DOI":"10.1029\/JC095iC07p11411","article-title":"Global Charts of Ocean Tide Loading Effects","volume":"951","author":"Francis","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25157","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC01916","article-title":"Error Analysis of Empirical Ocean Tide Models Estimated from TOPEX\/POSEIDON Altimetry","volume":"102","author":"Desai","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10273","DOI":"10.1029\/98JC00448","article-title":"An Investigation of Ocean Tides Derived from Along-Track Altimetry","volume":"103","author":"Tierney","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1007\/s10236-010-0316-0","article-title":"Bottom Pressure Tides along a Line in the Southeast Atlantic Ocean and Comparisons with Satellite Altimetry","volume":"60","author":"Ray","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ocean Dyn."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xiu, P., Chai, F., Shi, L., Xue, H., and Chao, Y. (2010). A Census of Eddy Activities in the South China Sea during 1993\u20132007. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean, 115.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JC005657"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"Wind and Drift Current in the South China Sea","volume":"8","author":"Dale","year":"1956","journal-title":"Malay. J. Trop. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/s10872-017-0411-7","article-title":"Statistical Features of Eddies Approaching the Kuroshio East of Taiwan Island and Luzon Island","volume":"73","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, G., Hou, Y., and Chu, X. (2011). Mesoscale Eddies in the South China Sea: Mean Properties, Spatiotemporal Variability, and Impact on Thermohaline Structure. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean, 116.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JC006716"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"303","article-title":"Co-Tidal and Co-Range Charts for the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea Derived from Satellite Altimetric Data","volume":"53","author":"Yanagi","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"85","article-title":"Co-Tidal and Co-Range Charts in the South China Sea Derived from Satellite Altimetry Data","volume":"35","author":"Yanagi","year":"1997","journal-title":"La Mer"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-4343(99)00002-3","article-title":"Numerical Simulation of Principal Tidal Constituents in the South China Sea, Gulf of Tonkin and Gulf of Thailand. Cont","volume":"19","author":"Fang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2007.10.007","article-title":"Numerical Study of the Tide and Tidal Dynamics in the South China Sea","volume":"55","author":"Zu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6598","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JC014146","article-title":"Exploration of Tidal-Fluvial Interaction in the Columbia River Estuary Using S_TIDE","volume":"123","author":"Pan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL024633","article-title":"Improved Description of the Ocean Mesoscale Variability by Combining Four Satellite Altimeters. Geophys","volume":"33","author":"Pascual","year":"2006","journal-title":"Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaron, E., and Ray, R. (2018). Aliased Tidal Variability in Mesoscale Sea Level Anomaly Maps. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 35.","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-18-0089.1"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schlax, M., and Chelton, D. (1995). Aliased Tidal Errors in TOPEX\/POSEIDON Sea Surface Height Data. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 99.","DOI":"10.1029\/94JC01925"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, G., Wang, Y., Wei, Z., Choi, B., Wang, X., and Wang, J. (2004). Empirical Cotidal Charts of the Bohai, Yellow, and East China Seas from 10 Years of TOPEX\/Poseidon Altimetry. J. Geophys. Res., 109.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JC002484"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2008.04.011","article-title":"Enhancing Tidal Harmonic Analysis: Robust (Hybrid L1\/L2) Solutions","volume":"29","author":"Leffler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2019.07.007","article-title":"Temporal Changes in the Response of the Nodal Modulation of the M2 Tide in the Gulf of Maine","volume":"186","author":"Pan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2021.104433","article-title":"Is There a Quasi 60-Year Oscillation in Global Tides?","volume":"222","author":"Pan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1016\/S0098-3004(02)00013-4","article-title":"Classical Tidal Harmonic Analysis with Error Analysis in MATLAB Using T_TIDE","volume":"28","author":"Pawlowicz","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2000)017<1118:DOWLAT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Determination of Water Level and Tides Using Interferometric Observations of GPS Signals","volume":"17","author":"Anderson","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, G., Su, J., and Chu, P. (2003). Mesoscale Eddies in the South China Sea Observed with Altimeter Data. Geophys. Res. Lett., 30.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003GL018532"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, J., Zhang, R., and Jin, B. (2011). Eddy Characteristics in the Northern South China Sea as Inferred from Lagrangian Drifter Data. Ocean Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.5194\/osd-8-1575-2011"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Du, Y., Zhuang, W., Xia, H., and Xie, Q. (2013). Evolution and Propagation of a Mesoscale Eddy in the Northern South China Sea during Winter. Acta Oceanol. Sin., 32.","DOI":"10.1007\/s13131-013-0325-1"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, M., Von Storch, H., Chen, X., Wang, D., and Li, D. (2019). Temporal and Spatial Statistics of Travelling Eddy Variability in the South China Sea. Ocean Dyn., 69.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10236-019-01282-2"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1029\/94JC01894","article-title":"TOPEX\/POSEIDON Tides Estimated Using a Global Inverse Model","volume":"99","author":"Egbert","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2002)019<0183:EIMOBO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Efficient Inverse Modeling of Barotropic Ocean Tides","volume":"19","author":"Egbert","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.5194\/os-17-615-2021","article-title":"FES2014 Global Ocean Tide Atlas: Design and Performance","volume":"17","author":"Lyard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cartwright, D., and Ray, R. (1990). Oceanic Tides from Geosat Alimetry. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 95.","DOI":"10.1029\/JC095iC03p03069"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Godin, G. (1972). The Analysis of Tides, University of Toronto Press."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Parker, B. (2007). Tidal analysis and prediction. NOAA Special Publ. NOS CO-OPS 3."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Pugh, D., and Woodworth, P. (2012). Sea-Level Science: Understanding Tides, Surges, Tsunamis and Mean Sea-Level Changes, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0142.1","article-title":"On Tidal Inference in the Diurnal Band","volume":"34","author":"Ray","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00fcller, M. (2011). Rapid Change in Semi-Diurnal Tides in the North Atlantic since 1980. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL047312"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7395","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JC011770","article-title":"On the Secular Changes in the Tidal Constituents in San Francisco Bay","volume":"122","author":"Ortiz","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devlin, A., Jay, D., Zaron, E., Talke, S.A., Pan, J., and Lin, H. (2017). Tidal Variability Related to Sea Level Variability in the Pacific Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean.","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JC013165"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2005.12.005","article-title":"Secular Changes of the M2 Tide in the Gulf of Maine","volume":"26","author":"Ray","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1","article-title":"Secular Trends in Ocean Tides: Observations and Model Results","volume":"116","author":"Arbic","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1126\/science.230.4721.69","article-title":"Nodal Modulation of the Lunar Semidiurnal Tide in the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine","volume":"230","author":"Ku","year":"1985","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-950X(2003)129:4(155)","article-title":"Trends in United States Tidal Datum Statistics and Tide Range","volume":"129","author":"Flick","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Waterw. Port Coast. Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.1991.tb05704.x","article-title":"Secular Trends in Mean Tidal Range around the British Isles and along the Adjacent European Coastline","volume":"104","author":"Woodworth","year":"1991","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1680","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2010.07.002","article-title":"A Survey of Recent Changes in the Main Components of the Ocean Tide","volume":"30","author":"Woodworth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colosi, J., and Munk, W. (2006). Tales of the Venerable Honolulu Tide Gauge*. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 36.","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO2876.1"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4023","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JC007215","article-title":"Seasonal Characteristics of Internal Tides on the Continental Shelf in the Northern South China Sea","volume":"117","author":"Guo","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2211","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-11-073.1","article-title":"Energy Flux and Dissipation in Luzon Strait: Two Tales of Two Ridges","volume":"41","author":"Alford","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jan, S., Chern, C.S., Wang, J., and Chao, S.Y. (2007). Generation of Diurnal K1internal Tide in the Luzon Strait and Its Influence on Surface Tide in the South China Sea. J. Geophys. Res., 112.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JC004003"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14399","article-title":"The Formation and Fate of Internal Waves in the South China Sea","volume":"521","author":"Alford","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/14\/2736\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:29:20Z","timestamp":1760164160000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/14\/2736"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13142736"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13142736","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,12]]}}}