{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T03:49:27Z","timestamp":1778816967638,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,17]],"date-time":"2021-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626480000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Beijing Outstanding Young Scientist Program","award":["BJJWZYJH01201910028032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BJJWZYJH01201910028032"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41930109\/ D010702"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41930109\/ D010702"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41771455\/ D010702"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41771455\/ D010702"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005024","name":"Beijing Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2018M641407"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018M641407"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Surface displacement is an common environmental geological phenomenon in the Beijing Plain. Research on surface displacement in the Beijing Plain has mainly focused on vertical surface displacement, whereas the horizontal displacement has scarcely been studied. To investigate the 3-D surface displacement in the Beijing Plain, we construct a leveling-constrained multidirectional PS-InSAR 3-D surface displacement estimation method to obtain the 3-D surface displacement information. The results show that the surface displacement in the study area during 2016\u20132018 was mainly vertical displacement with two main northern and southern subsidence centers; the vertical displacement ranged from \u2212150 mm\/year (down) to 5 mm\/year (up), and the east\u2013west horizontal displacement ranged from 20 mm\/year (east) to 22 mm\/year (west). Validation results show that the 3-D surface displacement estimation results agree well with leveling data and GPS data, indicating the reliability of the 3-D surface displacement datasets. The 3-D surface displacement results show that horizontal displacement is obvious in the areas with a large vertical displacement in the eastern Beijing Plain. Additionally, the horizontal displacement is directed toward the center of vertical displacement. The compressive strain is observed close to the centers of vertical displacement, whereas tensile strain occurs far from the centers of vertical displacement. The main cause of the 3-D surface displacement in the study area is the long-term groundwater overexploitation, especially deep groundwater exploitation. The spatial and temporal extents of displacement do not exactly match the locations of the groundwater sinks in different aquifers; instead, geological structures and stratigraphic\/lithological conditions may have a combined effect. Moreover, the spatial and temporal distributions of surface displacement are closely related to ground fissure activity, and both influence each other.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13142809","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,18]],"date-time":"2021-07-18T21:18:52Z","timestamp":1626643132000},"page":"2809","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Three-Dimensional Surface Displacement of the Eastern Beijing Plain, China, Using Ascending and Descending Sentinel-1A\/B Images and Leveling Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Shunkang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education Land Subsidence Mechanism and Prevention, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"College of Resources Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Observation and Research Station of Groundwater and Land Subsidence in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Plain, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Beijing Laboratory of Water Resources Security, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Beibei","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education Land Subsidence Mechanism and Prevention, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"College of Resources Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Observation and Research Station of Groundwater and Land Subsidence in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Plain, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Beijing Laboratory of Water Resources Security, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huili","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education Land Subsidence Mechanism and Prevention, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"College of Resources Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Observation and Research Station of Groundwater and Land Subsidence in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Plain, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Beijing Laboratory of Water Resources Security, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kunchao","family":"Lei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beijing Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Beijing 100195, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0848-5674","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Min","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education Land Subsidence Mechanism and Prevention, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"College of Resources Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Observation and Research Station of Groundwater and Land Subsidence in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Plain, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Beijing Laboratory of Water Resources Security, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chaofan","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education Land Subsidence Mechanism and Prevention, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"College of Resources Environment and Tourism, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Observation and Research Station of Groundwater and Land Subsidence in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei Plain, Beijing 100048, China"},{"name":"Beijing Laboratory of Water Resources Security, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"2598","article-title":"Extracting 3D ground deformation velocity field by multi-platform persistent scatterer SAR interferometry","volume":"55","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chin. 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