{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T00:28:50Z","timestamp":1767832130982,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,20]],"date-time":"2021-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626739200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Science and Technology Program of Guangzhou","award":["202002030247"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202002030247"]}]},{"name":"Key Special Project for Introduced Talents Team of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou)","award":["GML2019ZD0301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GML2019ZD0301"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41901372"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41901372"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41901371"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41901371"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"GDAS Project of Science and Technology Development","award":["2019GDASYL-0103004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019GDASYL-0103004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study examined the impact of different types of building roofs on urban heat islands. This was carried out using building roof data from remotely sensed Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) imagery. The roofs captured included white surface, blue steel, dark metal, other dark material, and residential roofs; these roofs were compared alongside three natural land covers (i.e., forest trees, grassland, and water). We also collected ancillary data including building height, building density, and distance to the city center. The impacts of various building roofs on land surface temperature (LST) were examined by analyzing their correlation and temporal variations. First, we examined the LST characteristics of five building roof types and three natural land covers using boxplots and variance analysis with post hoc tests. Then, multivariate regression analysis was used to explore the impact of building roofs on LST. There were three key findings in the results. First, the mean LSTs for five different building roofs statistically differed from each other; these differences were more significant during the hot season than the cool season. Second, the impact of the five types of roofs on LSTs varied considerably from each other. Lastly, the contribution of the five roof types to LST variance was more substantial during the cool season. These findings unveil specific urban heat retention drivers, in which different types of building roofs are one such driver. The outcomes from this research may help policymakers develop more effective strategies to address the surface urban heat island phenomenon and its related health concerns.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13142840","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,20]],"date-time":"2021-07-20T05:10:59Z","timestamp":1626757859000},"page":"2840","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Exploring the Impacts and Temporal Variations of Different Building Roof Types on Surface Urban Heat Island"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0015-147X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yingbin","family":"Deng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Guangdong Province, Public Laboratory of Geospatial Information Technology and Application in Guangdong Province, Guangzhou Institute of Geography, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China"}]},{"given":"Renrong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography and Tourism, Jiaying University, Meizhou 514015, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2045-6406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yichun","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography & Geology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA"}]},{"given":"Jianhui","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Guangdong Province, Public Laboratory of Geospatial Information Technology and Application in Guangdong Province, Guangzhou Institute of Geography, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China"}]},{"given":"Ji","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing and GIS Application in Guangdong Province, Public Laboratory of Geospatial Information Technology and Application in Guangdong Province, Guangzhou Institute of Geography, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China"}]},{"given":"Wenyue","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Geographical Science, Harbin Normal University, Harbin 150025, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.06.010","article-title":"Seasonal contrast of the dominant factors for spatial distribution of land surface temperature in urban areas","volume":"215","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126034","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2021.126034","article-title":"The turning point between urban vegetation and artificial surfaces for their competitive effect on land surface temperature","volume":"292","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.06.228","article-title":"Loss of vegetative cover and increased land surface temperature: A case study of Islamabad, Pakistan","volume":"234","author":"Waseem","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.120529","article-title":"Spatiotemporal patterns of summer urban heat island in Beijing, China using an improved land surface temperature","volume":"257","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.09.019","article-title":"Characterizing spatial and temporal trends of surface urban heat island effect in an urban main built-up area: A 12-year case study in Beijing, China","volume":"204","author":"Meng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123767","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.123767","article-title":"Optimizing local climate zones to mitigate urban heat island effect in human settlements","volume":"275","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2019.119169","article-title":"Observational and modeling study of interactions between urban heat island and heatwave in Beijing","volume":"247","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2020.121560","article-title":"Modeling the urban heat island mitigation effect of cool coatings in realistic urban morphology","volume":"264","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clean.Prod."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-19088-x","article-title":"Relationship among land surface temperature and LUCC, NDVI in typical karst area","volume":"8","author":"Deng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"899","article-title":"Review of methods for land surface temperature derived from thermal infrared remotely sensed data","volume":"20","author":"Zhaoliang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.09.003","article-title":"Comparison of impervious surface area and normalized difference vegetation index as indicators of surface urban heat island effects in Landsat imagery","volume":"106","author":"Yuan","year":"2007","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2014.11.007","article-title":"Impacts of urban biophysical composition on land surface temperature in urban heat island clusters","volume":"135","author":"Guo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.11.027","article-title":"Urban thermal environment dynamics and associated landscape pattern factors: A case study in the Beijing metropolitan region","volume":"173","author":"Peng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1694","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450-34.7.1694","article-title":"Simulated Urban Climate Response to Modifications in Surface Albedo and Vegetative Cover","volume":"34","author":"Sailor","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.859","article-title":"Two decades of urban climate research: A review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island","volume":"23","author":"Arnfield","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.11.007","article-title":"Temperature-land cover interactions: The inversion of urban heat island phenomenon in desert city areas","volume":"130","author":"Lazzarini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote. Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"30","article-title":"Urban heat island effect: A systematic review of spatio-temporal factors, data, methods, and mitigation measures","volume":"67","author":"Deilami","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oke, T.R., Mills, G., Christen, A., and Voogt, J.A. (2017). Urban Climates, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781139016476"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-013-9868-y","article-title":"The impact of distinct anthropogenic and vegetation features on urban warming","volume":"28","author":"Myint","year":"2013","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Administration, C.M. (2021, January 01). Historical Temperature in Guangzhou. Available online: http:\/\/lishi.tianqi.com\/guangzhou\/201401.html."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2011.03.007","article-title":"Positive effects of vegetation: Urban heat island and green roofs","volume":"159","author":"Susca","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.solener.2005.08.005","article-title":"A study of the thermal performance of reflective coatings for the urban environment","volume":"80","author":"Synnefa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Solar Energy"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1992)005<1140:TACIEC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Annual Cycle in Equatorial Convection and Sea Surface Temperature","volume":"5","author":"Mitchell","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vallero, D.A. (2008). 5\u2014The Physics of the Atmosphere. Fundamentals of Air Pollution, Academic Press. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012373615-4\/50006-6"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-7788(96)01002-X","article-title":"The effects of roof albedo modification on cooling loads of scale model residences in Tucson, Arizona","volume":"25","author":"Simpson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siegert, M.J. (2014). Evidence of the Growth and Decay of Ice Sheets on Glaciated Landscapes. Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-409548-9.09424-0"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"ToolBox, E. (2020, July 29). Thermal Conductivity of Selected Materials and Gases. Available online: https:\/\/www.engineeringtoolbox.com\/thermal-conductivity-d_429.html."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"108","article-title":"A generalized single-channel method for retrieving land surface temperature from remote sensing data","volume":"108","author":"Sobrino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160500075907","article-title":"Error sources on the land surface temperature retrieved from thermal infrared single channel remote sensing data","volume":"27","author":"Sobrino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"339","article-title":"Revision of the single-channel algorithm for land surface temperature retrieval from Landsat thermal-infrared data","volume":"47","author":"Sobrino","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"23","article-title":"Incorporating dummy variables in regression model to determine the average internally generated revenue and wage bills of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria","volume":"2","author":"Oluwapelumi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Stat. Probab."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2018.04.003","article-title":"Using three-factor theory to identify improvement priorities for express and local bus services: An application of regression with dummy variables in the Twin Cities","volume":"113","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.polar.2012.06.003","article-title":"A new approach to quantifying soil temperature responses to changing air temperature and snow cover","volume":"6","author":"Mackiewicz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Polar Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1177\/004912417400200402","article-title":"On dummy variable regression analysis: A description and illustration of the method","volume":"2","author":"Miller","year":"1974","journal-title":"Sociol. Methods Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hardy, M.A. (1993). Regression with Dummy Variables, Sage, Inc.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412985628"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rser.2015.03.035","article-title":"Regression analysis for prediction of residential energy consumption","volume":"47","author":"Fumo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-81455-6","article-title":"Artificial intelligence accuracy assessment in NO2 concentration forecasting of metropolises air","volume":"11","author":"Shams","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"52","article-title":"Climatic Characteristics of Guangzhou Temperature and Its Cause Analysis","volume":"2","author":"Yan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Meteorol. Mon."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"014005","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/5\/1\/014005","article-title":"Radiative forcing and temperature response to changes in urban albedos and associated CO2 offsets","volume":"5","author":"Menon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8795","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.06.036","article-title":"Meso-urban meteorological and photochemical modeling of heat island mitigation","volume":"42","author":"Taha","year":"2008","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2012.01.044","article-title":"Experimental and numerical assessment of the impact of increased roof reflectance on a school building in Athens","volume":"55","author":"Synnefa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"98","article-title":"Regional climate consequences of large-scale cool roof and photovoltaic array deployment","volume":"49123","author":"Millstein","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taha, H., Sailor, D., and Akbari, H. (1992). High-Albedo Materials for Reducing Building Cooling Energy Use.","DOI":"10.2172\/7000986"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"265","article-title":"Boundary Layer Climates","volume":"27","author":"Oke","year":"1987","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1007\/s11355-020-00417-8","article-title":"The influence of urban spatial pattern on land surface temperature for different functional zones","volume":"16","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2019.01.008","article-title":"The higher, the cooler? Effects of building height on land surface temperatures in residential areas of Beijing","volume":"110","author":"Zheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2019.101487","article-title":"Local climate zone ventilation and urban land surface temperatures: Towards a performance-based and wind-sensitive planning proposal in megacities","volume":"47","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2016.06.021","article-title":"Characterizing the impact of urban morphology heterogeneity on land surface temperature in Guangzhou, China","volume":"84","author":"Guo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/14\/2840\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:32:05Z","timestamp":1760164325000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/14\/2840"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,20]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13142840"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13142840","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,20]]}}}