{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,14]],"date-time":"2026-03-14T20:11:32Z","timestamp":1773519092172,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,23]],"date-time":"2021-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NASA Applied Sciences\u2010Water Resources Program","award":["NNX17AF51G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NNX17AF51G"]}]},{"name":"USDA Non Assistance Cooperative Agreement","award":["58\u20108042\u20105\u2010092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["58\u20108042\u20105\u2010092"]}]},{"name":"Utah Water Research Laboratory","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]},{"name":"E.&amp;J. Gallo Winery","award":["-"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["-"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Daily evapotranspiration (ETd) plays a key role in irrigation water management and is particularly important in drought-stricken areas, such as California and high-value crops. Remote sensing allows for the cost-effective estimation of spatial evapotranspiration (ET), and the advent of small unmanned aerial systems (sUAS) technology has made it possible to estimate instantaneous high-resolution ET at the plant, row, and subfield scales. sUAS estimates ET using \u201cinstantaneous\u201d remote sensing measurements with half-hourly\/hourly forcing micrometeorological data, yielding hourly fluxes in W\/m2 that are then translated to a daily scale (mm\/day) under two assumptions: (a) relative rates, such as the ratios of ET-to-net radiation (Rn) or ET-to-solar radiation (Rs), are assumed to be constant rather than absolute, and (b) nighttime evaporation (E) and transpiration (T) contributions are negligible. While assumption (a) may be reasonable for unstressed, full cover crops (no exposed soil), the E and T rates may significantly vary over the course of the day for partially vegetated cover conditions due to diurnal variations of soil and crop temperatures and interactions between soil and vegetation elements in agricultural environments, such as vineyards and orchards. In this study, five existing extrapolation approaches that compute the daily ET from the \u201cinstantaneous\u201d remotely sensed sUAS\u00a0ET estimates and the eddy covariance (EC) flux tower measurements were evaluated under different weather, grapevine variety, and trellis designs. Per assumption (b), the nighttime ET contribution was ignored. Each extrapolation technique (evaporative fraction (EF), solar radiation (Rs), net radiation-to-solar radiation (Rn\/Rs) ratio, Gaussian (GA), and Sine) makes use of clear skies and quasi-sinusoidal diurnal variations of hourly ET and other meteorological parameters. The sUAS\u00a0ET estimates and EC\u00a0ET measurements were collected over multiple years and times from different vineyard sites in California as part of the USDA Agricultural Research Service Grape Remote Sensing Atmospheric Profile and Evapotranspiration eXperiment (GRAPEX). Optical and thermal sUAS imagery data at 10 cm and 60 cm, respectively, were collected by the Utah State University AggieAir sUAS Program and used in the Two-Source Energy Balance (TSEB) model to estimate the instantaneous or hourly sUAS\u00a0ET at overpass time. The hourly ET from the EC measurements was also used to validate the extrapolation techniques. Overall, the analysis using EC measurements indicates that the Rs, EF, and GA approaches presented the best goodness-of-fit statistics for a window of time between 1030 and 1330 PST (Pacific Standard Time), with the Rs approach yielding better agreement with the EC measurements. Similar results were found using TSEB and sUAS data. The 1030\u20131330 time window also provided the greatest agreement between the actual daily EC ET and the extrapolated TSEB daily ET, with the Rs approach again yielding better agreement with the ground measurements. The expected accuracy of the upscaled TSEB daily ET estimates across all vineyard sites in California is below 0.5 mm\/day, (EC extrapolation accuracy was found to be 0.34 mm\/day), making the daily scale results from TSEB reliable and suitable for day-to-day water management applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13152887","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,23]],"date-time":"2021-07-23T10:31:44Z","timestamp":1627036304000},"page":"2887","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Assessing Daily Evapotranspiration Methodologies from One-Time-of-Day sUAS and EC Information in the GRAPEX Project"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0878-5861","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ayman","family":"Nassar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA"},{"name":"Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2238-9550","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfonso","family":"Torres-Rua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA"},{"name":"Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA"}]},{"given":"William","family":"Kustas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA"}]},{"given":"Joseph","family":"Alfieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA"}]},{"given":"Lawrence","family":"Hipps","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plants, Soils and Climate, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Prueger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Laboratory for Agriculture and Environment, Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4250-6424","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"H\u00e9ctor","family":"Nieto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Complutum Tecnolog\u00edas de la Informaci\u00f3n Geogr\u00e1fica S.L. (COMPLUTIG), 28801 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5344-0980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Mar","family":"Alsina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"E. & J. Gallo Winery, Viticulture, Chemistry and Enology, Modesto, CA 95354, USA"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9950-0499","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William","family":"White","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA"}]},{"given":"Lynn","family":"McKee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Hydrology and Remote Sensing Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA"}]},{"given":"Calvin","family":"Coopmans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA"}]},{"given":"Luis","family":"Sanchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"E. & J. Gallo Winery, Viticulture, Chemistry and Enology, Modesto, CA 95354, USA"}]},{"given":"Nick","family":"Dokoozlian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"E. & J. Gallo Winery, Viticulture, Chemistry and Enology, Modesto, CA 95354, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, H., Yang, D., Lei, Z., and Sun, F. (2008). New Analytical Derivation of the Mean Annual Water-Energy Balance Equation. Water Resour. Res., 44.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007WR006135"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04014050","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)IS.1943-555X.0000238","article-title":"System of Systems Model for Analysis of Biofuel Development","volume":"21","author":"Housh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Infrastruct. 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