{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,30]],"date-time":"2026-03-30T14:52:00Z","timestamp":1774882320031,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]],"date-time":"2021-07-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1627257600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["31770679"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31770679"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Building a high-precision, stable, and universal automatic extraction model of the rocky desertification information is the premise for exploring the spatiotemporal evolution of rocky desertification. Taking Guizhou province as the research area and based on MODIS and continuous forest inventory data in China, we used a machine learning algorithm to build a rocky desertification model with bedrock exposure rate, temperature difference, humidity, and other characteristic factors and considered improving the model accuracy from the spatial and temporal dimensions. The results showed the following: (1) The supervised classification method was used to build a rocky desertification model, and the logical model, RF model, and SVM model were constructed separately. The accuracies of the models were 73.8%, 78.2%, and 80.6%, respectively, and the kappa coefficients were 0.61, 0.672, and 0.707, respectively. SVM performed the best. (2) Vegetation types and vegetation seasonal phases are closely related to rocky desertification. After combining them, the model accuracy and kappa coefficient improved to 91.1% and 0.861. (3) The spatial distribution characteristics of rocky desertification in Guizhou are obvious, showing a pattern of being heavy in the west, light in the east, heavy in the south, and light in the north. Rocky desertification has continuously increased from 2001 to 2019. In conclusion, combining the vertical spatial structure of vegetation and the differences in seasonal phase is an effective method to improve the modeling accuracy of rocky desertification, and the SVM model has the highest rocky desertification classification accuracy. The research results provide data support for exploring the spatiotemporal evolution pattern of rocky desertification in Guizhou.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13152935","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]],"date-time":"2021-07-26T22:22:46Z","timestamp":1627338166000},"page":"2935","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Optimization of Rocky Desertification Classification Model Based on Vegetation Type and Seasonal Characteristic"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1377-1520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chunhua","family":"Qian","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China"},{"name":"School of Smart Agricultural, Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou 215008, China"}]},{"given":"Hequn","family":"Qiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart Agricultural, Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou 215008, China"},{"name":"School of Computer Science and Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215301, China"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Smart Agricultural, Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of Agriculture, Suzhou 215008, China"}]},{"given":"Mingyang","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Forestry, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1131634","article-title":"Global desertification: Building a science for dryland development","volume":"316","author":"Reynolds","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.5194\/se-7-83-2016","article-title":"The challenge and future of rocky desertification control in karst areas in southwest China","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5307","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4542-0","article-title":"How ecological restoration alters ecosystem services: An analysis of vegetation carbon sequestration in the karst area of northwest Guangxi, China","volume":"74","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Y., Han, R., Cui, N., Yang, J., and Guo, L. (2021). The Impact of Urbanization on Ecosystem Health in Typical Karst Areas: A Case Study of Liupanshui City, China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18010093"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.591","article-title":"How types of carbonate rock assemblages constrain the distribution of karst rocky desertified land in Guizhou Province, PR China: Phenomena and mechanisms","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1007\/s00254-008-1425-7","article-title":"Rocky desertification and its causes in karst areas: A case study in Yongshun County, Hunan Province, China","volume":"57","author":"Xiong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Geol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"98","article-title":"Innovation in the field of karst resources and environment in China","volume":"34","author":"Yuan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Carsologica Sin."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"17","article-title":"Progress of karst rocky desertification control in South China","volume":"47","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Jiangsu Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"680","article-title":"Spatiotemporal evolution of rocky desertification in karst area of Southwest China","volume":"41","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"8901","article-title":"Response of the landscape pattern of rocky desertification to land use change in Typical Karst Area","volume":"38","author":"Rang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.08.242","article-title":"Karst rocky desertification progress: Soil calcium as a possible driving force","volume":"649","author":"Tang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"8799","article-title":"Temporal and spatial changes of vegetation in key karst zones and its driving factors","volume":"38","author":"Xiao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2014.01.005","article-title":"Rocky desertification in Southwest China: Impacts, causes, and restoration","volume":"132","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth-Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2460-6","article-title":"Comparative studies of the distribution characteristics of rocky desertification and land use\/land cover classes in typical areas of Guizhou province, China","volume":"71","author":"Ying","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2019.1595175","article-title":"Assessing spatial-temporal evolution processes and driving forces of karst rocky desertification","volume":"36","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.12.028","article-title":"Evolution of sinkholes over Wink, Texas, observed by high-resolution optical, and SAR imagery","volume":"222","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"360","article-title":"Inversion model of soil profile moisture content in rocky desertification area based on microwave and optical remote sensing","volume":"37","author":"Yin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Infrared Millim. Waves"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-010-0498-2","article-title":"Using the radial basis function network model to assess rocky desertification in northwest Guangxi, China","volume":"62","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, H., Wang, J., Cheng, K., Li, G., Ochir, A., Davaasuren, D., and Chonokhuu, S. (2018). Desertification Information Extraction Based on Feature Space Combinations on the Mongolian Plateau. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10101614"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"422","article-title":"Spatial distribution characteristics of rocky desertification in Qiandongnan Prefecture of Guizhou Province","volume":"8","author":"Dou","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Resour. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-020-09007-1","article-title":"Evapotranspiration as a response to climate variability and ecosystem changes in southwest, China","volume":"79","author":"Mokhtar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-19088-x","article-title":"Relationship among land surface temperature and LUCC, NDVI in typical karst area","volume":"8","author":"Deng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.3731","article-title":"Factors influencing the evolution of human-driven rocky desertification in karst areas","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"82","article-title":"Correlation between Rocky Desertification and Slope Degree in Karst Area of Guizhou","volume":"4","author":"Li","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bull. Soil Water Conserv."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-3-W10-367-2020","article-title":"Karst Rocky Desertification Information Extraction Based on the Decision Tree","volume":"42","author":"Su","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2016.11.024","article-title":"Orienting rocky desertification towards sustainable land use: An advanced remote sensing tool to guide the conservation policy","volume":"61","author":"You","year":"2017","journal-title":"Land Use Policy"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Zhao, L.P. (2015). Spatiotemporal Evolution Characteristics of Rocky Desertification in Karst Area Based on MODIS Data. [Master\u2019s Thesis, China University of Geosciences]."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"102337","article-title":"Spectral analysis of seasonal rock and vegetation changes for detecting karst rocky desertification in southwest China","volume":"100","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13368","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49730-9","article-title":"Comparing Remote Sensing Methods for Monitoring Karst Rocky Desertification at Sub-pixel Scales in a Highly Heterogeneous Karst Region","volume":"9","author":"Qi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2113","DOI":"10.1007\/s10980-020-01100-x","article-title":"Integrating ecosystem services and rocky desertification into identification of karst ecological security pattern","volume":"36","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4483","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-014-3348-9","article-title":"Temporal and spatial changes of karst rocky desertification in ecological reconstruction region of Southwest China","volume":"72","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2018.03.036","article-title":"Ecological restoration enhances ecosystem health in the karst regions of southwest China","volume":"90","author":"Liao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1579\/08-S-493.1","article-title":"The control of rocky desertification and regional sustainable development in Karst Mountainous Areas in Southwest China","volume":"37","author":"Huang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"15","article-title":"Study on the historical evolution of Karst Rocky Desertification in Guizhou Province and its significance","volume":"30","author":"Cheng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bull. Soil Water Conserv."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"67","article-title":"Advances in Evaluation of Sustainable Development Capability in Karst Region","volume":"40","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Guizhou Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"388","article-title":"Ecological environment protection and sustainable development in Karst Area","volume":"41","author":"Yuan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Xiong, K.N. (2002). A Typical Study on Karst Rocky Desertification Based on Remote Sensing and GIS: A Case Study of Guizhou Province, Geological Publishing House."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"44","article-title":"The Evaluation Studies Progress and Prospects of Sustainable Development in Rocky Desertification Reegion","volume":"1","author":"Xiong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"235","article-title":"Study on Karst Rocky Desertification Based on MODIS Image\u2014A case study of Guizhou Province","volume":"31","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Land Resour."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"227","article-title":"Vegetation degradation and attribution in Guizhou Province Based on MODIS NDVI","volume":"38","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Carsologica Sin."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS3385.1","article-title":"The MODIS aerosol algorithm, products, and validation","volume":"62","author":"Remer","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1617","article-title":"MODIS-driven estimation of regional evapotranspiration in Karst area of Southwest China based on the Penman-Monteith-Leuning algorithm","volume":"29","author":"Zhong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Zhu, L.F. (2018). Spatiotemporal Variation of Vegetation Coverage and Rocky Desertification Monitoring Based on MODIS Data. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Southwest University]."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2021, January 18). Earth Engine Code Editor. Available online: https:\/\/code.earthengine.google.com\/."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2021, January 18). Google Earth Engine. Available online: https:\/\/developers.google.com\/earth-engine\/datasets\/catalog\/modis."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-011-9716-2","article-title":"Application of China\u2019s National Forest Continuous Inventory Database","volume":"48","author":"Xie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1186\/s40663-015-0047-2","article-title":"The national forest inventory in China: History\u2014Results\u2014International context","volume":"2","author":"Zeng","year":"2015","journal-title":"For. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5285","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3048416","article-title":"Effects of Forest Canopy Structure on Forest Aboveground Biomass Estimation Using Landsat Imagery","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Forest Resources Management Department (2014). Technical Regulations of National Forest Resources Continuous Inventory, China Forestry Administration."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"275","article-title":"Study on evaluation method of regional rocky desertification: A case study of Panxian county","volume":"37","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2021, January 18). MODIS Web, Available online: https:\/\/modis.gsfc.nasa.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Li, M.M. (2003). Study on Remote Sensing Estimation Method of Vegetation Coverage. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Institute of Remote Sensing Applications Chinese Academy of Sciences]."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Zhang, X.L. (2013). Study on Comprehensive Application Technology of Remote Sensing Monitoring of Rocky Desertification in Southeast Yunnan. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Kunming University of Science and Technology]."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Sun, F.D. (2013). Dynamic Remote Sensing Monitoring of the Main Lakes in China from 2000 to 2010. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Nanjing University]."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160304987","article-title":"Use of Normalized Difference Built-up Index in Automatically Mapping Urban Areas from TM Imagery","volume":"24","author":"Zha","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(01)00296-6","article-title":"A Comparison of Methods for Monitoring Multitemporal Vegetation Change Using Thematic Mapper Imagery","volume":"80","author":"Rogan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Zhou, Z.H. (2016). Machine Learning, Tsinghua University Press."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Du, P.J. (2019). Remote Sensing Multi Classifier Ensemble Method and Its Application, Science Press."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Wang, Y.Y. (2019). Study on the Extraction of Rocky Desertification Information and the Geological Driving Factors Based on Multi-Source Data. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Guizhou University]."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4407","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2011.552923","article-title":"Death to Kappa: Birth of quantity disagreement and allocation disagreement for accuracy assessment","volume":"32","author":"Pontius","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2015.1011794","article-title":"Properties of the quantity disagreement and the allocation disagreement","volume":"36","author":"Warrens","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"8919","article-title":"Spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of rocky desertification in typical karst areas of Southwest China: A case study of Puding county, Guizhou Province","volume":"38","author":"Xi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Xu, E.Q. (2020). Description of Karst Rocky Desertification Evolution Process and Information Mining Technology, Science Press."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"335","article-title":"Dynamic behavior characteristics and classification evaluation of rocky desertification patches","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"255","article-title":"Analysis on the distribution characteristics and influencing factors of rocky desertification landscape pattern\u2014A case study of Pan County, Guizhou Province","volume":"3","author":"Yan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Carsologica Sin."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"609","article-title":"Spatiotemporal evolution and evaluation of rocky desertification types in Guizhou Province","volume":"64","author":"Bai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Geogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"10","article-title":"Spatial and temporal characteristics of rocky desertification in Guizhou karst area from 2000 to 2010","volume":"32","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Guizhou Norm. Univ. (Nat. Sci. Ed.)"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4716","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-020-10784-2","article-title":"Simulation of coupled transport of soil moisture and heat in a typical karst rocky desertification area, Yunnan Province, Southwest China","volume":"28","author":"Xiong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, Z., Li, S., and Fang, H.J. (2020). Explicitly identifying the desertification change in CMREC area based on multisource remote data. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12193170"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pu, J., Zhao, X., Dong, P., Wang, Q., and Yue, Q.J. (2021). Extracting Information on Rocky Desertification from Satellite Images: A Comparative Study. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13132497"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1080\/22797254.2020.1777588","article-title":"Study on peak cluster-depression rocky desertification landscape evolution and human activity-influence in South of China","volume":"54","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-011-0496-7","article-title":"Human driving forces: Analysis of rocky desertification in karst region in Guanling County, Guizhou Province","volume":"21","author":"Wu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/15\/2935\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:35:11Z","timestamp":1760164511000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/15\/2935"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13152935"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13152935","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,26]]}}}