{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,28]],"date-time":"2026-01-28T06:38:24Z","timestamp":1769582304959,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1627344000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>An increase in temperature causes higher evaporation of water from water bodies; consequently, the water content in the atmosphere also increases. The precipitable water (PW), as the water content in the atmospheric air column, is therefore an important parameter to consider when studying climate change. The aim of this study was to analyse multi-annual precipitable water data derived from a dense Global Navigational Satellite Systems (GNSS) network. Twelve years of observations from over a hundred ASG-EUPOS stations were used to estimate changes in precipitation water values over Poland. The data were validated by comparison with the available radio-sounding data. The analysis of the GPS-based PW values showed an upward trend in the PW value of 0.078 mm\/year. The spatio-temporal distribution of the mean PW values and their fluctuations over the years were studied and visualised in the form of maps. The results are congruent with the fact that Poland lies on the border of influence of both continental and oceanic climates. Our results are also consistent with other climate research concerning this region.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13152960","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T22:35:02Z","timestamp":1627425302000},"page":"2960","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["GPS-Based Multi-Temporal Variation in Precipitable Water over the Territory of Poland"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1639-4337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrzej","family":"Araszkiewicz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, Gen. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5466-9979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Damian","family":"Kiliszek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, Gen. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"Mierzwiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, Gen. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1493-2103","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joanna","family":"Nowak Da Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, Gen. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7349-0990","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcin","family":"Szo\u0142ucha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Military University of Technology, Gen. S. Kaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-019-02464-z","article-title":"Global and regional impacts of climate change at different levels of global temperature increase","volume":"155","author":"Arnell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., and Midgley, P.M. (2013). IPCC, 2013: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovern-mental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PAGES 2k Consortium (2019). Consistent multidecadal variability in global temperature reconstructions and simulations over the Common Era. Nat. Geosci., 12, 643\u2013649.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-019-0400-0"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-16-0007.1","article-title":"Estimating changes in global temperature since the preindustrial period","volume":"98","author":"Hawkins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2021, June 30). Glossary of American Meteorological Society. Available online: https:\/\/glossary.ametsoc.org\/wiki\/Precipitable_water."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"27","article-title":"Annual course of the abundance of precipitation in Poland","volume":"60","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prz. Geofiz."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"151","article-title":"Atmospheric precipitable water and precipitations in Poland","volume":"61","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prz. Geofiz."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Richling, A., and Ostaszewska, K. (2005). Geografia Fizyczna Polski, State Scientific Publishers, PWN. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Ko\u017cuchowski, K. (2011). Klimat Polski. Nowe Spojrzenie, State Scientific Publishers, PWN. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.2006.03101.x","article-title":"Determination of the spatial and temporal variation of tropospheric water vapour using CGPS networks","volume":"167","author":"Troller","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bevis, M., Businger, S., Herring, T.A., Rocken, C., Anthes, R.A., and Ware, R.H. (1992). GPS meteorology: Remote sensing of atmospheric water vapour using the global positioning system. J. Geophys. Res., 15787\u201315801.","DOI":"10.1029\/92JD01517"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5019","DOI":"10.1029\/97JB03534","article-title":"Estimating horizontal gradients of tropospheric path delay with a single GPS receiver","volume":"103","author":"Kroger","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Zus, F., Lu, C., Dick, G., Ning, T., Ge, M., Wickert, J., and Schuh, H. (2015). Retrieving of atmospheric parameters from multi-GNSS in real time: Validation with water vapour radiometer and numerical weather model. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos.","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD023454"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zus, F., Dou\u0161a, J., Ka\u010dma\u0159\u00edk, M., V\u00e1clavovic, P., Balidakis, K., Dick, G., and Wickert, J. (2019). Improving GNSS Zenith Wet Delay Interpolation by Utilizing Tropospheric Gradients: Experiments with a Dense Station Network in Central Europe in the Warm Season. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11060674"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87275","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.2991094","article-title":"Precipitable Water Vapour Converted from GNSS-ZTD and ERA5 Datasets for the Monitoring of Tropical Cyclones","volume":"8","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-021-01104-3","article-title":"Monitoring and prediction of hurricane tracks using GPS tropospheric products","volume":"25","author":"Ejigu","year":"2021","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-1347-2018","article-title":"Reduction of ZTD outliers through improved GNSS data processing and screening strategies","volume":"11","author":"Stepniak","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2019.105082","article-title":"Analysis of GNSS sensed precipitable water vapour and tropospheric gradients during the derecho event in Poland of 11th August 2017","volume":"193","author":"Nykiel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055003","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/24\/5\/055003","article-title":"Near-real-time regional troposphere models for the GNSS precise point positioning technique","volume":"24","author":"Hadas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2020.107849","article-title":"Ultra-fast near real-time estimation of troposphere parameters and coordinates from GPS data","volume":"162","author":"Tondas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0141os, M., Smolak, K., Guerova, G., and Rohm, W. (2020). GNSS-Based Machine Learning Storm Nowcasting. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12162536"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1689","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-10-1689-2017","article-title":"EPN-Repro2: A reference GNSS tropospheric data set over Europe","volume":"10","author":"Araszkiewicz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1515\/acgeo-2015-0033","article-title":"Investigation of the 16-year and 18-year ZTD Time Series Derived from GPS DATA Processing","volume":"63","author":"Baldysz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Geophys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4861","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-4861-2016","article-title":"Comparison of GPS tropospheric delays derived from two consecutive EPN reprocessing campaigns from the point of view of climate monitoring","volume":"9","author":"Baldysz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baldysz, Z., Nykiel, G., Figurski, M., and Araszkiewicz, A. (2018). Assessment of the Impact of GNSS Processing Strategies on the Long-Term Parameters of 20 Years IWV Time Series. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10040496"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"2","article-title":"ASG-EUPOS. A Multifunctional Precise Satellite Positioning System in Poland","volume":"5","author":"Bosy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"52","article-title":"Verification of the Polish geodetic reference frame by means of a new solution based on permanent GNSS data from the years 2011-2014","volume":"102","author":"Liwosz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rep. Geod. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Herring, T.A., King, R.W., Floyd, A., and McClusky, S.C. (2018). Documentation for the GAMIT GPS Analysis Software 10,70, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Internal Report."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-019-0880-9","article-title":"GNSS metadata and data validation in the EUREF Permanent Network","volume":"23","author":"Bruyninx","year":"2019","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-016-0564-7","article-title":"The impact of the antenna phase center models on the coordinates in the EUREF Permanent Network","volume":"21","author":"Araszkiewicz","year":"2017","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B02406","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JB003629","article-title":"Troposphere mapping functions for GPS and very long baseline interferometry from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts operational analysis data","volume":"111","author":"Boehm","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Biavati, G., Hor\u00e1nyi, A., Mu\u00f1oz Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., and Rozum, I. (2018). ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1979 to present. Copernic. Clim. Chang. Serv. Clim. Data Store."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2020). Polish Climate Monitoring Bulletin 2019, Institute of Meteorology and Water Management\u2014National Research Institute."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"171","article-title":"Kontynentalizm termiczny w Europie","volume":"A","author":"Witek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bad. Fizjogr."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lorenc, H. (2005). Atlas klimatu Polski, Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Schwartz, B., and Govett, M. (2021, June 20). A Hydrostatically Consistent North American Radiosonde Data Base at the Forecast Systems Laboratory, 1946-Present, Forecast Systems Laboratory, Boulder Colorado, 1992, Available online: https:\/\/ruc.noaa.gov\/raobs\/radiosonde.pdf."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Stull, R. (2016). Practical Meteorology: An Algebra-Based Survey of Atmospheric Science, The University of British Columbia."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1127\/0941-2948\/2006\/0130","article-title":"World map of the K\u00f6ppen-Geiger climate classification updated","volume":"15","author":"Kottek","year":"2006","journal-title":"Meteorol. Z."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Swiatek, M., and Cedro, A. (2017). Podstawy meteorologii i klimatologii Polski. Odnawialne \u0179r\u00f3d\u0142a Energii w Polsce ze Szczeg\u00f3lnym Uwzgl\u0119dnieniem Wojew\u00f3dztwa Zachodniopomorskiego, ZAPOL. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Oko\u0142owicz, W., and Martyn, D. (1979). Regiony klimatyczne Polski. Atlas Geograficzny Polski, Polish Cartographic Publishers PPWK. (In Polish)."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wypych, A., Bochenek, B., and R\u00f3\u017cycki, M. (2018). Atmospheric Moisture Content over Europe and the Northern Atlantic. Atmosphere, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos9010018"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1","article-title":"Long Series of GNSS Integrated Precipitable Water as a Climate Change Indicator","volume":"99","author":"Kruczyk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rep. Geod. Geoinform."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"(2021, June 28). NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, State of the Climate: Global Climate Report for Annual 2020, Published Online January 2021, Available online: https:\/\/www.ncdc.noaa.gov\/sotc\/global\/202013."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-6981(73)90140-6","article-title":"City size and the urban heat island","volume":"7","author":"Oke","year":"1967","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2010). Bulletin of The National Hydrological and Meteorological Service: October 2010, Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Available online: https:\/\/danepubliczne.imgw.pl\/data\/dane_pomiarowo_obserwacyjne\/Biuletyn_PSHM\/Biuletyn_PSHM_2010_10_(pazdziernik).pdf."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5556","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GC008515","article-title":"The Generic Mapping Tools version 6","volume":"20","author":"Wessel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/15\/2960\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:35:53Z","timestamp":1760164553000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/15\/2960"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13152960"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13152960","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]]}}}