{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:29:36Z","timestamp":1772252976512,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,28]],"date-time":"2021-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630108800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Kakenhi A 18H03957"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Kakenhi A 18H03957"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>On 6 September at 03:08 a.m. local time, a 33 km deep earthquake underneath the Iburi mountains triggered more than 7000 co-seismic mass movements within 25 km of the epicenter. Most of the mass movements occurred in complex terrain and became coalescent. However, a total of 59 mass movements occurred as discrete events and stopped on the semi-horizontal valley floor. Using this case study, the authors aimed to define planar and vertical parameters to (1) compare the geometrical parameters with rain-triggered mass movements and (2) to extend existing datasets used for hazards and disaster risk purposes. To reach these objectives, the methodology relies on LiDAR data flown in the aftermath of the earthquake as well as aerial photographs. Using a Geographical Information System (GIS), planform and vertical parameters were extracted from the DEM in order to calculate the relationship between areas and volume, between the Fahrb\u00f6schung and the volume of the deposits, and to discuss the relationship between the deposit slope surface and the effective stress of the deposit. Results have shown that the relation S=k[Vd]2\/3 (where S is the surface area of a deposit and Vd the volume, and k a scalar that is function of S) is k = 2.1842ln(S) \u2212 10.167 with a R2 of 0.52, with less variability in deposits left by valley-confined processes compared to open-slope processes. The Fahrb\u00f6schung for events that started as valley-confined mass-movements was Fc = \u22120.043ln(D) + 0.7082, with a R2 of 0.5, while for open-slope mass-movements, the Fo = \u22120.046ln(D) + 0.7088 with a R2 of 0.52. The \u201cT-values\u201d, as defined by Takahashi (2014), are displaying values as high as nine times that of the values for experimental rainfall debris-flow, signifying that the effective stress is higher than in rain-triggered counterparts, which have an increased pore pressure due to the need for further water in the material to be moving. For co-seismic debris-flows and other co-seismic mass movements it is the ground acceleration that \u201cfluidizes\u201d the material. The maxima found in this study are as high as 3.75.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13173421","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,31]],"date-time":"2021-08-31T21:59:45Z","timestamp":1630447185000},"page":"3421","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Deposits\u2019 Morphology of the 2018 Hokkaido Iburi-Tobu Earthquake Mass Movements from LiDAR &amp; Aerial Photographs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1738-2434","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher","family":"Gomez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Sediment Hazards and Disaster Risk, Kobe University, Kobe 658-0022, Japan"}]},{"given":"Norifumi","family":"Hotta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheung, R.W.M. (2021). Landslide risk management in Hong Kong. Landslides, 1\u201317.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-020-01587-0"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Wong, H.N., and Ko, F.W.Y. (2006). Landslide risk assessment\u2014Application and Practice, Geo-Report 195."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-017-0904-x","article-title":"Relationships between natural terrain landslide magnitudes and triggering rainfall based on a large landslide inventory in Hong Kong","volume":"15","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-019-01206-7","article-title":"Characteristics of landslides caused by the 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi Earthquake","volume":"16","author":"Osanai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2020.104502","article-title":"Preliminary analysis of some characteristics of coseismic landslides induced by the Hokkaido Iburi-Tobu earthquake (5 September 2018)","volume":"189","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-019-1024-8","article-title":"Spatiotemporal crustal strain distribution around the Ishikari-Teichi-Toen fault zone estimated from global navigation satellite system data","volume":"71","author":"Ohzono","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-019-1042-6","article-title":"Geodetically estimated location and geometry of the fault plane involved in the 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi earthquake","volume":"71","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-020-1146-z","article-title":"Estimation of the source process and forward simulation of long-period ground motion of the 2018 Hokkaido Eastern Iburi, Japan, earthquake","volume":"72","author":"Kubo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/s40623-019-1044-4","article-title":"Cause of destructive strong ground motion within 1\u20132 s in Mukawa town during the 2018 Mw 66 Hokkaido eastern Iburi earthquake","volume":"71","author":"Takai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2521","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-018-1092-z","article-title":"Landslides by the 2018 Hokkaido Iburi-tobu earthquake on setpember 6","volume":"15","author":"Yamagishi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-020-01522-3","article-title":"Coseismic landslides induced by the 2018 Mw 6.6 Iburi, Japan, Earthquake: Spatial distribution, key factors weight and susceptibility regionalization","volume":"18","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Tsai, T.-T., Tsai, K.-J., and Shieh, C.-L. (2017, January 23\u201328). Large Scale Landslide Database System Established for the Reservoirs in Southern Taiwan. Proceedings of the 19th EGU General Assembly, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calista, M., Miccadei, E., Piacentini, T., and Sciarra, N. (2019). Morphostructural, Meteorological and Seismic Factors Controlling Landlsides in Weak Rocks: The Case Studies of Castelnuovo and Ponzano (North East Abruzzo, Central Italy). J. Geosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences9030122"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3079","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-020-04442-6","article-title":"Initiation mechanism of mudflow-like loess landslide induced by the combined effect of earthquakes and rainfall","volume":"105","author":"Pu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morelli, S., Prazzi, V., Frodella, W., and Fanti, R. (2018). Kinematic Reconstruction of a Deep-Seated Gravitational Slope Deformation by Geomophic Analyses. J. Geosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences8010026"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-7952(00)00066-1","article-title":"Strutural constraints on deep-seated slope deformation kinematics","volume":"59","author":"Agliardi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2006.09.015","article-title":"Application of multi-temporal differential interferometry to slope instability detection in urban\/peri-urban areas","volume":"88","author":"Bovenga","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0589-y","article-title":"Using wavelet tools to analyse seasonal variations from InSAR time-series data: A case study of the Huangtupo landslide","volume":"13","author":"Tomas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arbanas, \u017d., Bobrowsky, P.T., Konagai, K., Sassa, K., and Takara, K. (2021). High-resolution Point-Cloud for Landslides in the 21st Century: From Data Acquisition to New Processing Concepts. Understanding and Reducing Landslide Disaster Risk, ICL Contribution to Landslide Disaster Risk Reduction, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-60713-5"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Strozzi, T., and Ambrosi, C. (2007, January 23\u201327). SAR Interferometric Point Target Analysis and Interpretation of Aerial Photographs for Landslides Investigations in Ticino, southern Switzerland. Proceedings of the ENVISAT Symposium, Montreux, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.02.021","article-title":"A study of Japanese landscapes using structure from motion derived DSMs and DEMs based on historical aerial photographs: New opportunities for vegetation monitoring and diachronic geomorphology","volume":"242","author":"Gomez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2020.107306","article-title":"Post-seismic monitoring of cliff mass wasting using an unmanned aerial vehicle and field data at Egremni, Lefkada Island, Greece","volume":"367","author":"Koukouvelas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.05.011","article-title":"Reproducibility of UAV-based earth topography reconstructions based on Structure-from-Motion algorithms","volume":"260","author":"Clapuyt","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomoprhology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-016-0723-5","article-title":"The combined use of PSInSAR and UAV photogrammetry techniques for the analysis of the kinematics of a coastal landslide affecting an urban area (SE Spain)","volume":"14","author":"Mateos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-016-0759-6","article-title":"Monitoring the Potoska planina landslide (NW Slovenia) using UAV photogrammetry and tachymetric measurements","volume":"14","author":"Peternal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-017-6402-8","article-title":"Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based monitoring of a landslide: Gallenzerkogel landslide (Ybbs-Lower Austria) case study","volume":"190","author":"Eker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Monit Assess."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-020-6467-7","article-title":"The use of UAVs for landslide disaster risk research and disaster risk management: A literature review","volume":"18","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Litoseliti, A., Koukouvelas, I.K., Nikolakopoulos, G., and Zygouri, V. (2020). An Event-Based Inventory Approach in Landslide Hazard Assessment: The Case of the Skolis Mountain, Northwest Peloponnese, Greece. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9070457"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Jakob, M., and Hungr, O. (2005). Classification and terminology. Debris-Flow Hazards and Related Phenomena, Springer."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1897","article-title":"Empirical prediction of debris-flow mobility and deposition on fans","volume":"35","author":"Scheidl","year":"2010","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Chen, C.L., and Major, J.J. (2003). Validation of semi-empirical relationships for the definition of debris-flow behavior in granular materials. Debris-Flow Hazards Mitigation, Mill Press."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1130\/0016-7606(1998)110<0972:ODOLIH>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"Objective delineation of lahar-inundation hazard zones","volume":"110","author":"Iverson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geol. Soc. Am. Bull."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1139\/t96-005","article-title":"The angle of reach as a mobility index for small and large landslides","volume":"33","author":"Corominas","year":"1996","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Jakob, M., and Hungr, O. (2005). Runout prediction methods. Debris-Flow Hazards and Related Phenomena, Springer."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008064220727","article-title":"Empirical relationships for debris flows","volume":"19","author":"Rickenmann","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Takahashi, T. (2014). Debris Flow\u2014Mechanics, Prediction and Countermeasures, CRC Press\/Balkema. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2020.00312","article-title":"Anatomy of the Naga City Landslide and Comparison with Historical Debris Avalanches and Analog Models","volume":"8","author":"Lagmay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-019-01212-9","article-title":"Mechanism of a low-angle translational block slide: Evidence from the September 2018 Naga landslide, Philippines","volume":"16","author":"Catane","year":"2019","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-015-0617-y","article-title":"Investigation and dynamic analysis of a catastrophic rock avalanche on September 23, 1991, Zhaotong, China","volume":"13","author":"Xing","year":"2016","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.1139\/cgj-2018-0278","article-title":"Mobility of dry granular flows of varying collisional activity quantified by smart rock sensros","volume":"57","author":"Coombs","year":"2020","journal-title":"Can. Geotech. J."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Gomez, C., Shinohara, Y., Hotta, N., and Tsunetaka, H. (2020, January 9). In-flow Self-comminution of Debris-flow and Lahars: Fragmentation and Grinding Experiments for the Dacites from Unzen-Volcano. Proceedings of the 10th Symposium of Sediment Hazards, Japan."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Yamanouchi, T., and Murata, H. (1973, January 6\u201311). Brittle failure of a volcanic ash soil \u201cShirasu\u201d. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Moscow, Russia."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-7952(81)90018-1","article-title":"Engineering geology of the tropical volcanic soils of La Laguna, Tenerife","volume":"17","year":"1981","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9410(1988)114:10(1126)","article-title":"Cemented volcanic soil","volume":"114","author":"Crespo","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Geotech."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1002\/nag.1610110104","article-title":"Stability analysis of slopes with general nonlinear failure criterion","volume":"11","author":"Zhang","year":"1987","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sandf.2016.12.002","article-title":"Effect of the vertical earthquake component on permanent seismic displacement of soil slopes based on the nonlinear Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion","volume":"57","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soils Founds"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3212","article-title":"Boundary crossing and non-linear theory in earth-system sciences\u2014A proof of concept based on tsunami and post-eruption scenarios on Java Island, Indonesia","volume":"37","author":"Gomez","year":"2012","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process Landf."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/17\/3421\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:54:17Z","timestamp":1760165657000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/17\/3421"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,28]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13173421"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13173421","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.20944\/preprints202106.0366.v1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,28]]}}}