{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T00:37:42Z","timestamp":1767832662650,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,13]],"date-time":"2021-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631491200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41561144011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41561144011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41771311"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41771311"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["XDA 20040202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA 20040202"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Vegetation changes in the Upper White Nile River (UWNR) are of great significance to the maintenance of local livelihoods, the survival of wildlife, and the protection of species habitats. Based on the GIMMS NDVI3g and MODIS normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data, the temporal and spatial characteristics of vegetation changes in the UWNR from 1982 to 2020 were analyzed by a Theil-Sen median trend analysis and Mann-Kendall test. The future trend of vegetation was analyzed by the Hurst exponential method. A partial correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship of the vegetation and climate factors, and a residual trend analysis was used to quantify the influence of climate change and human activities on vegetation change. The results indicated that the average NDVI value (0.75) of the UWNR from 1982 to 2020 was relatively high. The average coefficient of variation for the NDVI was 0.059, and the vegetation change was relatively stable. The vegetation in the UWNR increased 0.013\/10 year on average, but the vegetation degradation in some areas was serious and mainly classified as agricultural land. The results of a future trend analysis showed that the vegetation in the UWNR is mainly negatively sustainable, and 62.54% of the vegetation will degrade in the future. The NDVI of the UWNR was more affected by temperature than by precipitation, especially on agricultural land and forestland, which were more negatively affected by warming. Climate change and human activities have an impact on vegetation changes, but the spatial distributions of the effects differ. The relative impact of human activities on vegetation change accounted for 64.5%, which was higher than that of climate change (35.5%). Human activities, such as the large proportion of agriculture, rapid population growth and the rapid development of urbanization were the main driving forces. Establishing a cross-border drought joint early warning mechanism, strengthening basic agricultural research, and changing traditional agricultural farming patterns may be effective measures to address food security and climate change and improve vegetation in the UWNR.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13183648","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,13]],"date-time":"2021-09-13T23:32:23Z","timestamp":1631575943000},"page":"3648","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Quantitative Contributions of Climate Change and Human Activities to Vegetation Changes in the Upper White Nile River"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Bo","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China"}]},{"given":"Shanshan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Christophe","family":"Mupenzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Information Systems, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Lay Adventists of Kigali, K K 508 St., Kigali P.O. Box 6392, Rwanda"}]},{"given":"Haoran","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China"}]},{"given":"Jianye","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China"}]},{"given":"Zhanbin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China"},{"name":"Institute of Water Resources and Hydro-Electric Engineering, Xi\u2019an University of Technology, No. 5 South Jinhua Road, Xi\u2019an 710048, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2015.05.002","article-title":"Spatio-temporal vegetation cover variations associated with climate change and ecological restoration in the Loess Plateau","volume":"209\u2013210","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142419","article-title":"Quantitative contributions of climate change and human activities to vegetation changes over multiple time scales on the Loess Plateau","volume":"755","author":"Shi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"507","article-title":"Envi-ronmental controls over carbon dioxide and water vapor exchange of terrestrial vegetation","volume":"16","author":"Law","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trans. Inst. Br. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140206","article-title":"Loess Plateau: From degradation to restoration","volume":"738","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102834","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2019.102834","article-title":"Assessment of the impacts of climate change and human activities on vegetation cover change in the Haihe River basin, China","volume":"115","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1484","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5031484","article-title":"Global Latitudinal-Asymmetric Vegetation Growth Trends and Their Driving Mechanisms: 1982\u20132009","volume":"5","author":"Mao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1038\/s43017-019-0001-x","article-title":"Characteristics, drivers and feedbacks of global greening","volume":"1","author":"Piao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3004","article-title":"Greening of the Earth and its drivers","volume":"6","author":"Zhu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1530","article-title":"Trends of vegetation change and driving factor analysis in recent 20 years over Zhejiang province","volume":"29","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12362","article-title":"Consistent response of vegetation dynamics to recent climate change in tropical mountain regions","volume":"20","author":"Krishnaswamy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoleng.2015.11.027","article-title":"The influence of climate change and human activities on ecosystem service value","volume":"87","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1002\/2017EF000573","article-title":"Past and future effects of climate change on spatially het-erogeneous vegetation activity in China","volume":"5","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth\u2019s Future"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Lutgens, F.K., Tarbuck, E.J., and Tasa, D. (2013). The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology, Pearson Education, Inc.. [12th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.01.022","article-title":"Impacts of climate change and human activities on grassland vegetation variation in the Chinese Loess Plateau","volume":"660","author":"Zheng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2017.08.005","article-title":"Detecting and attributing vegetation changes on China\u2019s Loess Plateau","volume":"247","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4891","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-14-4891-2017","article-title":"Impacts of temperature extremes on European vegetation during the growing season","volume":"14","author":"Baumbach","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2019.05.012","article-title":"Vegetation dynamics and their effects on surface water-energy balance over the Three-North Region of China","volume":"275","author":"Deng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.05.012","article-title":"Vegetation dynamics and responses to climate change and human activities in Central Asia","volume":"599\u2013600","author":"Jiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.01.030","article-title":"Revisiting the coupling between NDVI trends and cropland changes in the Sahel drylands: A case study in western Niger","volume":"191","author":"Tong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1080\/014311600210407","article-title":"Environmental quality and its changes, an analysis using NDVI","volume":"21","author":"Fung","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2005.05.011","article-title":"Using the satellite-derived NDVI to assess eco-logical responses to environmental change","volume":"20","author":"Pettorelli","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1781","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4061781","article-title":"Exploring the Use of MODIS NDVI-Based Phenology Indicators for Classifying Forest General Habitat Categories","volume":"4","author":"Clerici","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ufug.2017.05.001","article-title":"Urban vegetation phenology analysis using high spatio-temporal NDVI time series","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Urban For. Urban Green."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"e01299","article-title":"Understanding global spa-tio-temporal trends and the relationship between vegetation greenness and climate factors by land cover during 1982\u20132014","volume":"24","author":"Lamchin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2017.11.013","article-title":"Changes in global vegetation activity and its driving factors during 1982\u20132013","volume":"249","author":"Zhao","year":"2018","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Davis-Reddy, C. (2018). Assessing Vegetation Dynamics in Response to Climate Variability and Change across Sub-Saharan Africa, StelLenbosch University."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4358","article-title":"An analysis of recent rainfall conditions in eastern Africa","volume":"36","author":"Nicholson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16865","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53150-0","article-title":"Assessment of climate impact on vegetation dynamics over East Africa from 1982 to 2015","volume":"9","author":"Kalisa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Abera, T.A. (2020). Climatic Impacts of Vegetation Dynamics in Eastern Africa, University of Helsinki."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2013.10.002","article-title":"The Climate-Population Nexus in the East African Horn: Emerging Degradation Trends in Rangeland and Pastoral Livelihood Zones","volume":"23","author":"Pricope","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2020.102238","article-title":"Understanding vegetation variability and their \u2018\u2018hotspots\u2019\u2019 within Lake Victoria Basin (LVB: 2003\u20132018)","volume":"122","author":"Morgan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.12.015","article-title":"Evaluation of Earth Observation based global long term vegetation trends\u2014Comparing GIMMS and MODIS global NDVI time series","volume":"119","author":"Fensholt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2005.08.004","article-title":"Recent trends in vegetation dynamics in the African Sahel and their relationship to climate","volume":"15","author":"Herrmann","year":"2005","journal-title":"Glob. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2009.04.004","article-title":"Evaluation of earth observation based long term vegetation trends\u2014Intercomparing NDVI time series trend analysis consistency of Sahel from AVHRR GIMMS, Terra MODIS and SPOT VGT data","volume":"113","author":"Fensholt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1417","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168608948945","article-title":"Characteristics of maximum-value composite images from temporal AVHRR data","volume":"7","author":"Holben","year":"1986","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4302","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5086","article-title":"WorldClim 2: New 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas","volume":"37","author":"Fick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3711","article-title":"Updated high-resolution grids of monthly climatic observations\u2014The CRU TS3.10 Dataset","volume":"34","author":"Harris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Jarvis, A., Reuter, H.I., Nelson, A., and Guevara, E. (2021, September 03). Hole-Filled SRTM for the Globe Version 4, Available from the CGIAR-CSI SRTM 90 m Database. Available online: https:\/\/data.tpdc.ac.cn\/en\/data\/literature\/c5e73417-5451-47ac-b3c1-c49d2162a700\/."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1080\/01431169108929717","article-title":"Mean and inter-year variation of growing-season normalized difference vegetation index for the Sahel 1981\u20131989","volume":"12","author":"Tucker","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1080\/014311600210812","article-title":"GAC NDVI interannual coefficient of variation (CoV) images: Ground truth sampling of the Sahel along north-south transects","volume":"21","author":"Milich","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2014.07.031","article-title":"Spatio-temporal analysis of vegetation variation in the Yellow River Basin","volume":"51","author":"Jiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5889","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL081946","article-title":"Extreme Lake Level Changes on the Tibetan Plateau Associated With the 2015\/2016 El Ni\u00f1o","volume":"46","author":"Lei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(01)00594-7","article-title":"Power of the Mann-Kendall and Spearman\u2019s Rho Tests For Detecting Monotonic Trends in Hydro-logical Series","volume":"259","author":"Yue","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2888","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21089-3","article-title":"Grassland dynamics in response to climate change and human activities in Xinjiang from 2000 to 2014","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Z.Z., Wang, H., Li, N., Zhu, J., Pan, Z.W., and Qin, F. (2020). Spatial and Temporal Characteristics and Driving Forces of Vegetation Changes in the Huaihe River Basin from 2003 to 2018. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12062198"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134782","article-title":"Vertical difference of climate change impacts on vegetation at temporal-spatial scales in the upper stream of the Mekong River Basin","volume":"701","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140574","article-title":"Climate warming benefits alpine vegetation growth in Three-River Headwater Region, China","volume":"742","author":"Bai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2012.10.014","article-title":"Analysis of changes in meteorological variables using Mann-Kendall and Sen\u2019s slope estimator statistical tests in Serbia","volume":"100","author":"Gocic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"1170","article-title":"Advance and evaluation in the long time series vegetation trends research based on remote sensing","volume":"13","author":"Cai","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y., Xie, Z., Qin, Y., Xia, H., Zheng, Z., Zhang, L., Pan, Z., and Liu, Z. (2019). Drought Under Global Warming and Climate Change: An Empirical Study of the Loess Plateau. Sustainability, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/su11051281"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Kendall, M.G. (1975). Rank Correlation Methods, Charles Griffin."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-003-0022-7","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variability of winter and summer precipitation over Serbia and Montenegro","volume":"77","year":"2004","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chnaes.2012.08.001","article-title":"Characteristics of multi-temporal scale variation of vegetation coverage in the Circum Bohai Bay Region, 1999\u20132009","volume":"32","author":"Hou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Ecol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-016-0807-0","article-title":"Dynamics and responses of vegetation to climatic variations in Ziya-Daqing basins, China","volume":"26","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1080\/0143116021000020144","article-title":"Variability of the Seasonally Integrated Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Across the North Slope of Alaska in the 1990s","volume":"24","author":"Stow","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"87","article-title":"A Partial Correlation Coefficient and Coefficient of Determination for Multivariate Normal Repeated Measures Data","volume":"50","author":"Lipsitz","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s11629-018-4995-1","article-title":"Detecting and attributing vegetation changes in Taihang Mountain, China","volume":"16","author":"Hu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mt. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"249","article-title":"Assessment of NDVI variations in responses to climate change in the Horn of Africa","volume":"23","author":"Ghebrezgabher","year":"2020","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2018.04.033","article-title":"Spatiotemporal variation in vegetation coverage and its response to climatic factors in the Red River Basin, China","volume":"93","author":"Gu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2020.108146","article-title":"Attribution of climate and human activities to vegetation change in China using machine learning techniques","volume":"294","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.142549","article-title":"Assessing the interaction of land cover\/land use dynamics, climate extremes and food systems in Uganda","volume":"753","author":"Lunyolo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6584.2009.00558.x","article-title":"Ground water security and drought in Africa: Linking availability, access, and demand","volume":"48","author":"Calow","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ground Water"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nzabarinda, V., Bao, A., Xu, W., Uwamahoro, S., Madeleine, U., Dufatanye Umwali, E., Nyirarwasa, A., and Umuhoza, J. (2021). A Spatial and Temporal Assessment of Vegetation Greening and Precipitation Changes for Monitoring Vegetation Dynamics in Climate Zones over Africa. Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10030129"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1126\/science.291.5503.481","article-title":"Variation among Biomes in Temporal Dynamics of Aboveground Primary Production","volume":"291","author":"Knapp","year":"2001","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoser.2020.101154","article-title":"Cropland expansion outweighs the monetary effect of declining natural vegetation on ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"45","author":"Fenta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecosyst. Serv."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1017\/S0376892912000379","article-title":"Land use change and carbon fluxes in East Africa quantified using earth observation data and field measurements","volume":"40","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Conserv."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/18\/3648\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:01:34Z","timestamp":1760166094000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/18\/3648"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,13]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13183648"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13183648","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,13]]}}}