{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T10:21:10Z","timestamp":1781173270598,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]],"date-time":"2021-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1631664000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a review on the PECASUS service, which provides advisories on enhanced space weather activity for civil aviation. The advisories are tailored according to the Standards and Recommended Practices of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Advisories are disseminated in three impact areas: radiation levels at flight altitudes, GNSS-based navigation and positioning, and HF communication. The review, which is based on the experiences of the authors from two years of running pilot ICAO services, describes empirical models behind PECASUS products and lists ground- and space-based sensors, providing inputs for the models and 24\/7 manual monitoring activities. As a concrete example of PECASUS performance, its products for a post-storm ionospheric F2-layer depression event are analyzed in more detail. As PECASUS models are particularly tailored to describe F2-layer thinning, they reproduce observations more accurately than the International Reference Ionosphere model (IRI(STORM)), but, on the other hand, it is recognized that the service performance is much affected by the coverage of its input data. Therefore, more efforts will be directed toward systematic measuring of the availability, timeliness and quality of the data provision in the next steps of the service development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13183685","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]],"date-time":"2021-09-15T12:00:44Z","timestamp":1631707244000},"page":"3685","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Space Weather Services for Civil Aviation\u2014Challenges and Solutions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5900-4709","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kirsti","family":"Kauristie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI), Erik Palm\u00e8nin aukio 1, 00560 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesse","family":"Andries","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Beck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Campus Seibersdorf, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3308-4584","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jens","family":"Berdermann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Aerospace Center, Institute for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Woldegker Chaussee 35, 17235 Neustrelitz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4052-9462","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Berghmans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2268-4389","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudio","family":"Cesaroni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erwin","family":"De Donder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9149-7328","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Judith","family":"de Patoul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Dierckxsens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9790-8546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eelco","family":"Doornbos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Utrechtseweg 297, 3731 GA De Bilt, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Gibbs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Met Office (UKMO), FitzRoy Road, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krista","family":"Hammond","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Met Office (UKMO), FitzRoy Road, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haris","family":"Haralambous","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Frederick University, 7, Y. Frederickou Str., Pallouriotisa, Nicosia 1036, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8541-2802","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ari-Matti","family":"Harri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI), Erik Palm\u00e8nin aukio 1, 00560 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2740-5414","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edmund","family":"Henley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Met Office (UKMO), FitzRoy Road, Exeter, Devon EX1 3PB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5543-180X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Kriegel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Aerospace Center, Institute for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Woldegker Chaussee 35, 17235 Neustrelitz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tiera","family":"Laitinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI), Erik Palm\u00e8nin aukio 1, 00560 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0990-2388","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcin","family":"Latocha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Campus Seibersdorf, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2422-6050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yana","family":"Maneva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4335-0345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Loredana","family":"Perrone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6487-9945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuele","family":"Pica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6097-374X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luciano","family":"Rodriguez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vincenzo","family":"Romano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7208-3381","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dario","family":"Sabbagh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2310-0306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Spogli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2291-0342","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iwona","family":"Stanislawska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polish Academy of Sciences, Space Research Center, Bartycka 18A, 00-716 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9128-3514","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lukasz","family":"Tomasik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polish Academy of Sciences, Space Research Center, Bartycka 18A, 00-716 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mpho","family":"Tshisaphungo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"South African National Space Agency, Space Science, Hospital Street, Hermanus 7200, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9018-6571","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kasper","family":"van Dam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Utrechtseweg 297, 3731 GA De Bilt, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bert","family":"van den Oord","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, Utrechtseweg 297, 3731 GA De Bilt, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Petra","family":"Vanlommel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9816-1130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tobias","family":"Verhulst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Solar-Terrestrial Centre of Excellence (STCE), Ringlaan-Avenue Circulaire 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"},{"name":"Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium, Ringlaan 3, 1180 Brussels, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Volker","family":"Wilken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"German Aerospace Center, Institute for Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Woldegker Chaussee 35, 17235 Neustrelitz, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6271-0126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andriy","family":"Zalizovski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Polish Academy of Sciences, Space Research Center, Bartycka 18A, 00-716 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kari","family":"\u00d6sterberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI), Erik Palm\u00e8nin aukio 1, 00560 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lilensten, J., Belehaki, A., and Poedts, S. (2008). A European definition for space weather. Developing the Scientific Basis for Monitoring, Modelling and Predicting Space Weather, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (Luxemburg).","DOI":"10.2478\/s11600-008-0081-3"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1002\/swe.20066","article-title":"Empirical determination of solar proton access to the atmosphere: Impact on polar flight paths: EMPIRICAL DETERMINATION OF SPE CUTOFFS","volume":"11","author":"Neal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1029\/2018SW001933","article-title":"Ionospheric response to the X9.3 flare on 6 September 2017 and its implication for Navigation Services Over Europe","volume":"16","author":"Berdermann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A42","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2018029","article-title":"Solar radio emission as a disturbance of aeronautical radionavigation","volume":"65","author":"Marque","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Space Weather Space Clim."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"International Civil Aviation Organization (2018). Annex 3 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation-Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation, ICAO. Technical report."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsurutani, B.T., Verkhoglyadova, O.P., Mannucci, A.J., Lakhina, G.S., Li, G., and Zank, G.P. (2009). A brief review of \u201csolar flare effects\u201d on the ionosphere: SFES ON IONOSPHERE. Radio Sci., 44.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008RS004029"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3241","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2012.0104","article-title":"Solar flares and energetic particles","volume":"370","author":"Vilmer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L08102","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL038021","article-title":"Stereoscopic imaging of an Earth-impacting solar coronal mass ejection: A major milestone for the STEREO mission","volume":"36","author":"Davis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-007-0336-1","article-title":"Periodic Appearance of Coronal Holes and the Related Variation of Solar Wind Parameters","volume":"241","author":"Temmer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Solar Phys."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3871","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JA026396","article-title":"Properties and Geoeffectiveness of Solar Wind High-Speed Streams and Stream Interaction Regions During Solar Cycles 23 and 24","volume":"124","author":"Grandin","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL003639","article-title":"Interplanetary acceleration of coronal mass ejections","volume":"27","author":"Gopalswamy","year":"2000","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005160129098","article-title":"[Interplanetary origin of geomagnetic storms","volume":"88","author":"Gonzalez","year":"1999","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2019). International Civil Aviation Organization. Manual on SpaceWeather Information in Support of International Air Navigation (Doc 10100), ICAO. [1st ed.]. Technical report."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jakowski, N., Mayer, C., Hoque, M.M., and Wilken, V. (2011). Total electron content models and their use in ionosphere monitoring: TEC MODELS IN IONOSPHERE MONITORING. Radio Sci., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2010RS004620"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kintner, P.M., Ledvina, B.M., and de Paula, E.R. (2007). GPS and ionospheric scintillations: GPS AND IONOSPHERIC SCINTILLATIONS. Space Weather, 5.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006SW000260"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3429","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-27-3429-2009","article-title":"Climatology of GPS ionospheric scintillations over high and mid-latitude European regions","volume":"27","author":"Spogli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-35-97-2017","article-title":"Scintillation measurements at Bahir Dar during the high solar activity phase of solar cycle 24","volume":"35","author":"Kriegel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2283","DOI":"10.1029\/97GL02273","article-title":"Monitoring of global ionospheric irregularities using the Worldwide GPS Network","volume":"24","author":"Pi","year":"1997","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1856","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2008.01.015","article-title":"A new version of the NeQuick ionosphere electron density model","volume":"70","author":"Nava","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.1987.310829","article-title":"Ionospheric Time-Delay Algorithm for Single-Frequency GPS Users","volume":"AES-23","author":"Klobuchar","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A36","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2015038","article-title":"L-band scintillations and calibrated total electron content gradients over Brazil during the last solar maximum","volume":"5","author":"Cesaroni","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Space Weather. Space Clim."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-006-0093-1","article-title":"Calibration errors on experimental slant total electron content (TEC) determined with GPS","volume":"81","author":"Ciraolo","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tornatore, V., Cesaroni, C., Pezzopane, M., Alizadeh, M.M., and Schuh, H. (2021). Performance Evaluation of VTEC GIMs for Regional Applications during Different Solar Activity Periods, Using RING TEC Values. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13081470"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1016\/S0273-1177(98)00101-X","article-title":"GPS-based TEC observations in comparison with IRI95 and the European TEC model NTCM2","volume":"22","author":"Jakowski","year":"1998","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"947","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1583","article-title":"A comparison of spatial interpolation methods to estimate continuous wind speed surfaces using irregularly distributed data from England and Wales","volume":"28","author":"Luo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Latocha, M., and Beck, P. (2016, January 19\u201323). Cosmic radiation assessment at ESA\u2019s space weather portal with AVIDOS. Proceedings of the 2016 16th European Conference on Radiation and Its Effects on Components and Systems (RADECS), Bremen, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADECS.2016.8093138"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1093\/rpd\/ncp126","article-title":"AVIDOS\u2014A software package for European accredited aviation dosimetry","volume":"136","author":"Latocha","year":"2009","journal-title":"Radiat. Prot. Dosim."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"1","article-title":"On-line database of cosmic ray intensities","volume":"2001","author":"Usoskin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. ICRC"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1797","DOI":"10.1029\/2018SW001992","article-title":"Real-Time Detection of the Ground Level Enhancement on 10 September 2017 by A.Ne.Mo.S.: System Report","volume":"16","author":"Mavromichalaki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Space Sciences Series of ISSI, Bieber, J.W., Eroshenko, E., Evenson, P., Fl\u00fcckiger, E.O., and Kallenbach, R. (2000). Neutron Monitor Response Functions. Cosmic Rays and Earth, Springer."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Fl\u00fcckiger, E., Moser, M., Pirard, B., B\u00fctikofer, R., and Desorgher, L. (2008, January 3\u201311). A parameterized neutron monitor yield function for space weather applications. Proceedings of the 30th International Cosmic Ray Conference, Merida, Mexico."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2006.869826","article-title":"Geant4 developments and applications","volume":"53","author":"Allison","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Desorgher, L. (2005). PLANETOCOSMICS Software User Manual, Physikalisches Institut, University of Bern. Report."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"International Commission on Radiological Protection (1991). 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, Annals of the ICRP; Pergamon Press. ICRP Publication 60."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"International Commission on Radiological Protection (2007). 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection, Annals of the ICRP; Pergamon Press. ICRP Publication 103."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Beck, P., Bottolier-Depois, J.F., B\u00fctikofer, R., Fl\u00fcckiger, E., Fuller, N., Klein, K.L., Latocha, M., Mares, V., Matthi\u00e4, D., and R\u00fchm, W. Comparison of Codes Assessing Radiation Exposure at Aviation Altitudes in Case of Solar Particle Events. Technical Report EURADOS Report 2012-03."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1002\/2017SW001605","article-title":"Real-time prediction of the occurrence of GLE events: Predicting GLE Events","volume":"15","author":"Malandraki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-60051-2_7","article-title":"HESPERIA Forecasting Tools: Real-Time and Post-Event","volume":"Volume 444","author":"Malandraki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Solar Particle Radiation Storms Forecasting and Analysis"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crosby, N.B., Veronig, A., Robbrecht, E., Vrsnak, B., Vennerstrom, S., Malandraki, O., Dalla, S., Rodriguez, L., Srivastava, N., and Hesse, M. (2021, August 27). COMESEP Consortium. Forecasting the Space Weather Impact: The COMESEP Project, Available online: http:\/\/clok.uclan.ac.uk\/28203\/1\/COMESEP_paper_AIPConfProc2012.pdf.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4768760"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machol, J.L., Eparvier, F.G., Viereck, R.A., Woodraska, D.L., Snow, M., Thiemann, E., Woods, T.N., McClintock, W.E., Mueller, S., and Eden, T.D. (2020). GOES-R Series Solar X-ray and Ultraviolet Irradiance. The GOES-R Series, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-814327-8.00019-6"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sauer, H.H., and Wilkinson, D.C. (2008). Global mapping of ionospheric HF\/VHF radio wave absorption due to solar energetic protons: IONOSPHERIC RADIO WAVE ABSORPTION. Space Weather, 6.","DOI":"10.1029\/2008SW000399"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3681","DOI":"10.1029\/JZ066i011p03681","article-title":"Coordinates for mapping the distribution of magnetically trapped particles","volume":"66","author":"McIlwain","year":"1961","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Akmaev, R., Newman, A., Codrescu, M., Schulz, C., and Nerney, E. (2021, August 27). D-RAP Model Validation: I. Scientific Report, Available online: https:\/\/www.ngdc.noaa.gov\/stp\/drap\/DRAP-V-Report1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dieminger, W., Hartman, G.K., and Leitinger, R. (1996). Geomagnetic Activity Indices. The Upper Atmosphere, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-78717-1"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-246X.1995.tb06895.x","article-title":"Computer production of Kindices: Review and comparison of methods","volume":"123","author":"Menvielle","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6826(02)00031-7","article-title":"Monitoring and forecasting of ionospheric space weather\u2014Effects of geomagnetic storms","volume":"64","author":"Lastovicka","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Atmos.-Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Piggott Roy, W., and Rawer, K. (1978). U.R.S.I Handbook of Ionogram Interpretation and Reduction, NOAA."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"363","article-title":"Ionospheric storm negative phase at middle latitudes","volume":"35","author":"Shubin","year":"1995","journal-title":"Geomagn. Aeron. Engl. Transl."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1002\/2014RS005373","article-title":"A method for foF2 short-term (1\u201324 h) forecast using both historical and real-time foF2 observations over European stations: EUROMAP model","volume":"49","author":"Mikhailov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5194\/ars-16-1-2018","article-title":"IRI the International Standard for the Ionosphere","volume":"16","author":"Bilitza","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1134\/S0016793217040181","article-title":"Global empirical model of critical frequency of the ionospheric F2-layer for quiet geomagnetic conditions","volume":"57","author":"Shubin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomagn. Aeron."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"SIA 15\u20131\u2013SIA 15\u201316","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JA009430","article-title":"NRLMSISE-00 empirical model of the atmosphere: Statistical comparisons and scientific issues: TECHNIQUES","volume":"107","author":"Picone","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1029\/JZ054i003p00295","article-title":"Geomagnetic and solar data","volume":"54","author":"Bartels","year":"1949","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10125","DOI":"10.1029\/JA092iA09p10125","article-title":"Time-weighted accumulations ap(\u03c4)andKp(\u03c4)","volume":"92","author":"Wrenn","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.4401\/ag-3824","article-title":"Solar, ionospheric and geomagnetic indices","volume":"41","author":"Perrone","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s11207-013-0252-5","article-title":"The LYRA Instrument Onboard PROBA2: Description and In-Flight Performance","volume":"286","author":"Dominique","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2011.06.004","article-title":"Ionization effect of solar protons in the Earth atmosphere\u2014Case study of the 20 January 2005 SEP event","volume":"48","author":"Mishev","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1002\/2017SW001743","article-title":"Onsets of Solar Proton Events in Satellite and Ground Level Observations: A Comparison","volume":"16","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7490","DOI":"10.1029\/JA078i031p07490","article-title":"Auroral substorms and the interplanetary magnetic field","volume":"78","author":"Akasofu","year":"1973","journal-title":"JGR"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1086\/153950","article-title":"The overall distribution of carbon monoxide in the plane of the Galaxy","volume":"202","author":"Burton","year":"1975","journal-title":"APJ"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361:20041302","article-title":"Automated recognition of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) in near-real-time data","volume":"425","author":"Robbrecht","year":"2004","journal-title":"A&A"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Araujo-Pradere, E.A., Fuller-Rowell, T.J., and Bilitza, D. (2004). Time Empirical Ionospheric Correction Model (STORM) response in IRI2000 and challenges for empirical modeling in the future: STORM RESPONSE IN IRI2000. Radio Sci., 39.","DOI":"10.1029\/2002RS002805"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-018-1135-1","article-title":"A modified carrier-to-code leveling method for retrieving ionospheric observables and detecting short-term temporal variability of receiver differential code biases","volume":"93","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sabbagh, D., Bagiacchi, P., and Scotto, C. (September, January 29). Accuracy assessment of the MUF(3000) nowcasting for PECASUS Space Weather services. Proceedings of the 2020 XXXIIIrd General Assembly and Scientific Symposium of the International Union of Radio Science, Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.23919\/URSIGASS49373.2020.9232437"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2020013","article-title":"Neural network based model for global Total Electron Content forecasting","volume":"10","author":"Cesaroni","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Space Weather. Space Clim."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A41","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2019038","article-title":"The ionosphere prediction service prototype for GNSS users","volume":"9","author":"Cesaroni","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Space Weather. Space Clim."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A35","DOI":"10.1051\/swsc\/2018020","article-title":"EUHFORIA: European heliospheric forecasting information asset","volume":"8","author":"Pomoell","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Space Weather. Space Clim."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/18\/3685\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:00:03Z","timestamp":1760166003000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/18\/3685"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13183685"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13183685","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,15]]}}}