{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T11:31:36Z","timestamp":1780745496697,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,27]],"date-time":"2021-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1632700800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003629","name":"Korea Meteorological Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["KMA2018-00222"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KMA2018-00222"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003629","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The CO2 growth rate is one of the key geophysical quantities reflecting the dynamics of climate change as atmospheric CO2 growth is the primary driver of global warming. As recent studies have shown that TCCON (Total Carbon Column Observing Network) measurement footprints embrace quasi-global coverage, we examined the sensitivity of TCCON to the global CO2 growth. To this end, we used the aggregated TCCON observations (2006-2019) to retrieve Annual Growth Rate of CO2 (AGR) at global scales. The global AGR estimates from TCCON (AGRTCCON) are robust and independent, from (a) the station-wise seasonality, from (b) the differences in time series across the TCCON stations, and from (c) the type of TCCON stations used in the calculation (\u201cbackground\u201d or \u201ccontaminated\u201d by neighboring CO2 sources). The AGRTCCON potential error, due to the irregular data sampling is relatively low (2.4\u201317.9%). In 2006\u20132019, global AGRTCCON ranged from the minimum of 1.59 \u00b1 2.27 ppm (2009) to the maximum of 3.27 \u00b1 0.82 ppm (2016), whereas the uncertainties express sub-annual variability and the data gap effects. The global AGRTCCON magnitude is similar to the reference AGR from satellite data (AGRSAT = 1.57\u20132.94 ppm) and the surface-based estimates of Global Carbon Budget (AGRGCB = 1.57\u20132.85). The highest global CO2 growth rate (2015\/2016), caused by the record El Ni\u00f1o, was nearly perfectly reproduced by the TCCON (AGRTCCON = 3.27 \u00b1 0.82 ppm vs. AGRSAT = 3.23 \u00b1 0.50 ppm). The overall agreement between global AGRTCCON with the AGR references was yet weakened (r = 0.37 for TCCON vs. SAT; r = 0.50 for TCCON vs. GCB) due to two years (2008, 2015). We identified the drivers of this disagreement; in 2008, when only few stations were available worldwide, the AGRTCCON uncertainties were excessively high (AGRTCCON = 2.64 ppm with 3.92 ppm or 148% uncertainty). Moreover, in 2008 and 2015, the ENSO-driven bias between global AGRTCCON and the AGR references were detected. TCCON-to-reference agreement is dramatically increased if the years with ENSO-related biases (2008, 2015) are forfeited (r = 0.67 for TCCON vs. SAT, r = 0.82 for TCCON vs. GCB). To conclude, this is the first study that showed promising ability of aggregated TCCON signal to capture global CO2 growth. As the TCCON coverage is expanding, and new versions of TCCON data are being published, multiple data sampling strategies, dynamically changing TCCON global measurement footprint, and the irregular sensitivity of AGRTCCON to strong ENSO events; all should be analyzed to transform the current efforts into a first operational algorithm for retrieving global CO2 growth from TCCON data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193868","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,27]],"date-time":"2021-09-27T22:16:38Z","timestamp":1632780998000},"page":"3868","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Towards Robust Calculation of Interannual CO2 Growth Signal from TCCON (Total Carbon Column Observing Network)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1459-5781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lev D.","family":"Labzovskii","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"R&D Satellite and Observations Group, Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), 3731GA De Bilt, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samuel Takele","family":"Kenea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovative Meteorological Research Department, National Institute of Meteorological Sciences (NIMS), 33, Seohobuk-ro, Seogwipo-si 63568, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9202-906X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hannakaisa","family":"Lindqvist","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Finnish Meteorological Institute, 00560 Helsinki, Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinwon","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovative Meteorological Research Department, National Institute of Meteorological Sciences (NIMS), 33, Seohobuk-ro, Seogwipo-si 63568, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shanlan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovative Meteorological Research Department, National Institute of Meteorological Sciences (NIMS), 33, Seohobuk-ro, Seogwipo-si 63568, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6074-4461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Young-Hwa","family":"Byun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovative Meteorological Research Department, National Institute of Meteorological Sciences (NIMS), 33, Seohobuk-ro, Seogwipo-si 63568, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tae-Young","family":"Goo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Convergence Meteorological Research Department, National Institute of Meteorological Sciences (NIMS), Seogwipo-si 63568, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3063","article-title":"El Ni\u00f1o and a record CO2 rise","volume":"6","author":"Betts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21691","DOI":"10.1038\/srep21691","article-title":"On the causal structure between CO2 and global temperature","volume":"6","author":"Stips","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18866","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0702737104","article-title":"Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks","volume":"104","author":"Canadell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-14-133-2014","article-title":"Terrestrial carbon sink observed from space: Variation of growth rates and seasonal cycle amplitudes in response to interannual surface temperature variability","volume":"14","author":"Schneising","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20140421","DOI":"10.1098\/rsta.2014.0421","article-title":"Carbon cycle feedbacks and future climate change","volume":"373","author":"Friedlingstein","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13428","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms13428","article-title":"Recent pause in the growth rate of atmospheric CO2 due to enhanced terrestrial carbon uptake","volume":"7","author":"Keenan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4249","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-7-4249-2007","article-title":"First direct observation of the atmospheric CO2 year-to-year increase from space","volume":"7","author":"Buchwitz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17355","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-18-17355-2018","article-title":"Computation and analysis of atmospheric carbon dioxide annual mean growth rates from satellite observations during 2003\u20132016","volume":"18","author":"Buchwitz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-017-1978-0","article-title":"The rise in global atmospheric CO2, surface temperature, and sea level from emissions traced to major carbon producers","volume":"144","author":"Ekwurzel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13061","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1219683110","article-title":"Variations in atmospheric CO2 growth rates coupled with tropical temperature","volume":"110","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1674","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-01831-7","article-title":"Intensification of terrestrial carbon cycle related to El Ni\u00f1o\u2013Southern Oscillation under greenhouse warming","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaam5690","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aam5690","article-title":"Contrasting carbon cycle responses of the tropical continents to the 2015\u20132016 El Ni\u00f1o","volume":"358","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024001","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/aa9c5b","article-title":"The carbon cycle response to two El Nino types: An observational study","volume":"13","author":"Chylek","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20170301","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2017.0301","article-title":"A successful prediction of the record CO2 rise associated with the 2015\/2016 El Ni\u00f1o","volume":"373","author":"Betts","year":"2018","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1002\/gbc.20028","article-title":"Atmospheric CO2 response to volcanic eruptions: The role of ENSO, season, and variability: Volcanoes and the global carbon budget","volume":"27","author":"Joos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0889.2009.00439.x","article-title":"Climate effects on atmospheric carbon dioxide over the last century","volume":"61","author":"Rafelski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Tellus B Chem. Phys. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13376","article-title":"Contribution of semi-arid ecosystems to interannual variability of the global carbon cycle","volume":"509","author":"Poulter","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.14884","article-title":"Interannual variation of terrestrial carbon cycle: Issues and perspectives","volume":"26","author":"Piao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Dlugokencky, E., and Tans, P. (2020, July 29). Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration, Earth System Research Laboratory (NOAA\/ESRL), Available online: http:\/\/www.esrl.noaa.gov\/gmd\/ccgg\/trends\/global.html."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1783","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-11-1783-2019","article-title":"Global Carbon Budget 2019","volume":"11","author":"Friedlingstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-13-789-2020","article-title":"Ensemble-based satellite-derived carbon dioxide and methane column-averaged dry-air mole fraction data sets (2003\u20132018) for carbon and climate applications","volume":"13","author":"Reuter","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-16-117-2019","article-title":"Global atmospheric CO2 inverse models converging on neutral tropical land exchange, but disagreeing on fossil fuel and atmospheric growth rate","volume":"16","author":"Gaubert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3547","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-11-3547-2014","article-title":"Current systematic carbon-cycle observations and the need for implementing a policy-relevant carbon observing system","volume":"11","author":"Ciais","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6539","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-6539-2018","article-title":"Improved retrievals of carbon dioxide from Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 with the version 8 ACOS algorithm","volume":"11","author":"Eldering","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GB004890","article-title":"Separating the influence of temperature, drought, and fire on interannual variability in atmospheric CO2","volume":"28","author":"Wolf","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-17-143-2017","article-title":"Study of the footprints of short-term variation in XCO2; observed by TCCON sites using NIES and FLEXPART atmospheric transport models","volume":"17","author":"Belikov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chevallier, F., Deutscher, N.M., Conway, T.J., Ciais, P., Ciattaglia, L., Dohe, S., Fr\u00f6hlich, M., Gomez-Pelaez, A.J., Griffith, D., and Hase, F. (2011). Global CO2 fluxes inferred from surface air-sample measurements and from TCCON retrievals of the CO2 total column: TWO CO2 FLUX INVERSIONS. Geophys. Res. Lett., 38.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL049899"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13023","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-15-13023-2015","article-title":"Does GOSAT capture the true seasonal cycle of carbon dioxide?","volume":"15","author":"Lindqvist","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5103","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-13-5103-2013","article-title":"Evaluation of seasonal atmosphere\u2013biosphere exchange estimations with TCCON measurements","volume":"13","author":"Messerschmidt","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2209","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-10-2209-2017","article-title":"Comparisons of the Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2) X CO2 measurements with TCCON","volume":"10","author":"Wunch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sussmann, R., and Rettinger, M. (2020). Can We Measure a COVID-19-Related Slowdown in Atmospheric CO2 Growth? Sensitivity of Total Carbon Column Observations. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12152387"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-017-0013-9","article-title":"Towards real-time verification of CO2 emissions","volume":"7","author":"Peters","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-6-783-2013","article-title":"On the parallelization of atmospheric inversions of CO2; surface fluxes within a variational framework","volume":"6","author":"Chevallier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"2087","article-title":"The Total Carbon Column Observing Network","volume":"369","author":"Wunch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. A"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-3-1351-2010","article-title":"Calibration of the Total Carbon Column Observing Network using aircraft profile data","volume":"3","author":"Wunch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Feist, D.G., Arnold, S.G., John, N., and Geibel, M.C. (2014). TCCON data from Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Deutscher, N., Notholt, J., Messerschmidt, J., Weinzierl, C., Warneke, T., Petri, C., Grupe, P., and Katrynski, K. (2015). TCCON Data from Bialystok, Poland, Release GGG2014R2. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Notholt, J., Petri, C., Warneke, T., Deutscher, N., Buschmann, M., Weinzierl, C., Macatangay, R., and Grupe, P. (2014). TCCON Data from Bremen, Germany, Release ggg2014r0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Griffith, D.W.T., Deutscher, N., Velazco, V.A., Wennberg, P.O., Yavin, Y., Aleks, G.K., Washenfelder, R., Toon, G.C., Blavier, J.F., and Murphy, C. (2014). TCCON Data from Darwin, Australia, Release ggg2014r0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Iraci, L., Podolske, J., Hillyard, P., Roehl, C., Wennberg, P.O., Blavier, J.-F., Landeros, J., Allen, N., Wunch, D., and Zavaleta, J. (2016). TCCON Data from Armstrong Flight Research Center, Edwards, CA, USA, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Strong, K., Mendonca, J., Weaver, D., Fogal, P., Drummond, J.R., Batchelor, R., and Lindenmaier, R. (2017). TCCON data from Eureka, Canada, Release GGG2014R2. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Sussmann, R., and Rettinger, M. (2021, May 23). TCCON Data from Garmisch (DE), Release GGG2014.R2. Available online: https:\/\/data.caltech.edu\/records\/956."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Blumenstock, T., Hase, F., Schneider, M., Garcia, O.E., and Sepulveda, E. (2017). TCCON Data from Izana, Tenerife, Spain, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Hase, F., Blumenstock, T., Dohe, S., Gross, J., and Kiel, M. (2015). TCCON Data from Karlsruhe, Germany, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Wennberg, P.O., Wunch, D., Roehl, C., Blavier, J.F., Toon, G.C., Allen, N., Dowell, P., Teske, K., Martin, C., and Martin, J. (2014). TCCON Data from Lamont, Oklahoma, USA, Release ggg2014r0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Sherlock, V., Connor, B., Robinson, J., Shiona, H., Smale, D., and Pollard, D. (2014). TCCON Data from Lauder, New Zealand, 125HR, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Pollard, D., Robinson, J., and Shiona, H. (2019). TCCON Data from Lauder, New Zealand, 125HR, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Notholt, J., Schrems, O., Warneke, T., Deutscher, N., Weinzierl, C., Palm, M., and Buschmann, M. (2019). AWI-PEV Station Engineers. TCCON Data from Ny Alesund, Spitzbergen, Norway, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Warneke, T., Messerschmidt, J., Notholt, J., Weinzierl, C., Deutscher, N., Petri, C., Grupe, P., Vuillemin, C., Truong, F., and Schmidt, M. (2014). TCCON Data from Orleans, France, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Te, Y., Jeseck, P., and Janssen, C. (2014). TCCON Data from Paris, France, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Wennberg, P.O., Roehl, C., Wunch, D., Toon, G.C., Blavier, J.-F., Washenfelder, R., Keppel-Aleks, G., Allen, N., and Ayers, J. (2017). TCCON Data from Park Falls, Wisconsin, USA, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Wennberg, P.O., Wunch, D., Roehl, C., Blavier, J.-F., Toon, G.C., and Allen, N. (2015). TCCON Data from California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"De Maziere, M., Sha, M.K., Desmet, F., Hermans, C., Scolas, F., Kumps, N., Metzger, J.-M., Duflot, V., and Cammas, J.-P. (2017). TCCON Data from R\u00e9union Island (La R\u00e9union), France, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Shiomi, K., Kawakami, S., Ohyama, H., Arai, K., Okumura, H., Taura, C., Fukamachi, T., and Sakashita, M. (2014). TCCON Data from Saga, Japan, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Morino, I., Matsuzaki, T., and Horikawa, M. (2018). TCCON Data from Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan, 125HR, Release GGG2014R2. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Kawakami, S., Ohyama, H., Arai, K., Okumura, H., Taura, C., Fukamachi, T., and Sakashita, P. (2021, May 23). TCCON data from Saga (JP), Release GGG2014.R0. Available online: https:\/\/data.caltech.edu\/records\/288."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Kivi, R., Heikkinen, P., and Kyro, E. (2014). TCCON Data from Sodankyla, Finland, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.5194\/gi-5-271-2016","article-title":"Fourier transform spectrometer measurements of column CO2; at Sodankyl\u00e4, Finland","volume":"5","author":"Kivi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geosci. Instrum. Method. Data Syst."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"1033","article-title":"TCCON Data from Wollongong, Australia, Release ggg2014r0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory","volume":"9","author":"Griffith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Sussmann, R., and Rettinger, M. (2018). TCCON Data from Zugspitze, Germany, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Wunch, D., Toon, G.C., Sherlock, V., Deutscher, N.M., Liu, C., Feist, D.G., and Wennberg, P.O. (2021, May 23). The Total Carbon Column Observing Network\u2019s GGG2014 Data Version, 42, n.d. (TCCON Data Reference) 2015. Dataset Identifier for TCCON. Available online: https:\/\/data.caltech.edu\/records\/249."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Griffith, D.W.T., Deutscher, N., Velazco, V.A., Wennberg, P.O., Yavin, Y., Keppel Aleks, G., Washenfelder, R., Toon, G.C., Blavier, J.-F., and Murphy, C. (2014). TCCON Data from Darwin, Australia, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Wennberg, P.O., Roehl, C., Blavier, J.-F., Wunch, D., Landeros, J., and Allen, N. (2007). TCCON Data from Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Wennberg, P.O., Wunch, D., Yavin, Y., Toon, G.C., Blavier, J.-F., Allen, N., and Keppel-Aleks, G. (2014). TCCON Data from Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, USA, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Dubey, M., Henderson, B., Green, D., Butterfield, Z., Keppel-Aleks, G., Allen, N., Blavier, J.-F., Roehl, C., Wunch, D., and Lindenmaier, R. (2014). TCCON Data from Manaus, Brazil, Release GGG2014R0. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Iraci, L., Podolske, J., Hillyard, P., Roehl, C., Wennberg, P.O., Blavier, J.-F., Landeros, J., Allen, N., Wunch, D., and Zavaleta, J. (2016). TCCON Data from Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, Release GGG2014R1. TCCON Data Archive, Hosted by CaltechDATA, California Institute of Technology."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-8-129-2015","article-title":"Atmospheric transport and chemistry of trace gases in LMDz5B: Evaluation and implications for inverse modelling","volume":"8","author":"Locatelli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D24309","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006390","article-title":"Inferring CO2 sources and sinks from satellite observations: Method and application to TOVS data","volume":"110","author":"Chevallier","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D21307","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD013887","article-title":"CO2 surface fluxes at grid point scale estimated from a global 21 year reanalysis of atmospheric measurements","volume":"115","author":"Chevallier","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-5-417-2005","article-title":"The two-way nested global chemistry-transport zoom model TM5: Algorithm and applications","volume":"16","author":"Krol","year":"2005","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-10-87-2018","article-title":"The Open-source Data Inventory for anthropogenic CO2, version 2016 (ODIAC2016): A global monthly fossil fuel CO2 gridded emissions data product for tracer transport simulations and surface flux inversions","volume":"10","author":"Oda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jacobson, A.R., Mikaloff Fletcher, S.E., Gruber, N., Sarmiento, J.L., and Gloor, M. (2007). A joint atmosphere-ocean inversion for surface fluxes of carbon dioxide: 1. Methods and global-scale fluxes: JOINT INVERSION-METHODS AND GLOBAL FLUXES. Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles, 21.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GB002556"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr2.2008.12.009","article-title":"Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea-air CO2 flux over the global oceans","volume":"56","author":"Takahashi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. II"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11279","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-11279-2019","article-title":"Analysis of total column CO2 and CH4 measurements in Berlin with WRF-GHG","volume":"19","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4116","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD002299","article-title":"Intercomparison of remote sounding instruments","volume":"108","author":"Rodgers","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Null, J. (2020, July 15). El Nino and La Ni\u00f1a Years and Intensities Based on Oceanic Nino Index (ONI), Golden GateWeather Services. Available online: http:\/\/ggweather.com\/enso\/oni.htm."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"044003","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/4\/4\/044003","article-title":"A new map of global urban extent from MODIS satellite data","volume":"4","author":"Schneider","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111359","article-title":"Working towards confident spaceborne monitoring of carbon emissions from cities using Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2","volume":"233","author":"Labzovskii","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112246","article-title":"An assessment of emission characteristics of Northern Hemisphere cities using spaceborne observations of CO2, CO, and NO2","volume":"254","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Dlugokencky, E.J., Mund, J.W., Crotwell, A.M., Crotwell, M.J., and Thoning, K.W. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Dry Air Mole Fractions from the NOAA GML Carbon Cycle Cooperative Global Air Sampling Network, 1968\u20132019, Available online: https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15138\/wkgj-f215."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12915","article-title":"A two-fold increase of carbon cycle sensitivity to tropical temperature variations","volume":"506","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, Y., Sussmann, R., Rettinger, M., Ries, L., Petermeier, H., and Menzel, A. (2019). Comparison of Continuous In-Situ CO2 Measurements with Co-Located Column-Averaged XCO2 TCCON\/Satellite Observations and CarbonTracker Model over the Zugspitze Region. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11242981"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1848","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL071515","article-title":"Why were the 2015\/2016 and 1997\/1998 extreme El Ni\u00f1os different? Contrasting 1997\/1998 and 2015\/2016 El Ni\u00f1os, Geophys","volume":"44","author":"Paek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1239207","article-title":"Enhanced Seasonal Exchange of CO2 by Northern Ecosystems Since 1960","volume":"341","author":"Graven","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Uchino, O., Sakai, T., Nagai, T., Izumi, T., Shibata, T., Morino, I., Yoshida, Y., Hiroshi, O., Arai, K., and Bagtasa, G. (2021, May 23). Characteristics of Atmospheric Aerosols Observed by Lidar at Five TCCON Sites Extending from 43\u00b0N to 45\u00b0S. Available online: https:\/\/ui.adsabs.harvard.edu\/abs\/2017AGUFM.A21M..07U\/abstract."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2541","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-14-2541-2014","article-title":"In situ measurement of atmospheric CO2 at the four WMO\/GAW stations in China","volume":"14","author":"Fang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3986","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-013-5895-y","article-title":"Simulation of CO2 variations at Chinese background atmospheric monitoring stations between 2000 and 2009: Applying a CarbonTracker model","volume":"58","author":"Cheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chin. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-8-287-2014","article-title":"Evaluation of NOAA Carbon Tracker Global Carbon Dioxide Products","volume":"XL-8","author":"Nayak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spatial Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-10-2141-2018","article-title":"Global Carbon Budget 2018","volume":"10","author":"Andrew","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Randerson, J.T., Chen, Y., van der Werf, G.R., Rogers, B.M., and Morton, D.C. (2012). Global burned area and biomass burning emissions from small fires: Burned Area from Small Fires. J. Geophys. Res., 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JG002128"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Feist, D.G., Burjack, I., and Niebling, S. (2013, January 7\u201312). TCCON measurements from Ascension Island: Lessons learned from the first of operation. Proceedings of the EGU General Assembly 2013, Vienna, Austria."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3344","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11097-w","article-title":"Net carbon emissions from African biosphere dominate pan-tropical atmospheric CO2 signal","volume":"10","author":"Palmer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusb.v48i4.15931","article-title":"Simulations of terrestrial carbon metabolism and atmospheric CO2 in a general circulation model","volume":"48","author":"Denning","year":"1996","journal-title":"Tellus B Chem. Phys. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2361","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-2361-2018","article-title":"Characteristics of greenhouse gas concentrations derived from ground-based FTS spectra at Anmyeondo, South Korea","volume":"11","author":"Oh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-683-2016","article-title":"Consistent evaluation of ACOS-GOSAT, BESD-SCIAMACHY, CarbonTracker, and MACC through comparisons to TCCON","volume":"9","author":"Kulawik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8386","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1321883111","article-title":"Multiscale observations of CO2, 13CO2, and pollutants at Four Corners for emission verification and attribution","volume":"111","author":"Lindenmaier","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/19\/3868\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:05:47Z","timestamp":1760166347000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/19\/3868"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,27]]},"references-count":96,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13193868"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13193868","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,27]]}}}