{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:23:41Z","timestamp":1760235821292,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]],"date-time":"2021-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633132800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We investigate a target detection probability (TDP) using path loss of an airborne radar based on air-to-air scenarios in anomalous atmospheric and weather environments. In the process of calculating the TDP, it is necessary to obtain the overall path loss including the anomalous atmospheric environment, gas attenuation, rainfall attenuation, and beam scanning loss. The path loss including the quad-linear refractivity model and other radar input parameters is simulated using the Advanced Refractive Effects Prediction System (AREPS) software along the range and the altitude. For the gas and rainfall attenuations, ITU-R models are used to consider the weather environment. In addition, the radar beam scan loss and a radar cross section (RCS) of the target are considered to estimate the TDP of the airborne long-range radar. The TDP performance is examined by employing the threshold evaluations of the total path loss derived from the detectability factor and the free-space radar range equation. Finally, the TDPs are obtained by assuming various air-to-air scenarios for the airborne radar in anomalous atmospheric and weather environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193943","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,8]],"date-time":"2021-10-08T21:26:20Z","timestamp":1633728380000},"page":"3943","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Prediction of Target Detection Probability Based on Air-to-Air Long-Range Scenarios in Anomalous Atmospheric Environments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Tae-Heung","family":"Lim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 04066, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8409-6964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hosung","family":"Choo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, Hongik University, Seoul 04066, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.26866\/jees.2019.19.2.82","article-title":"SAR image generation of ocean surface using time-divided velocity bunching model","volume":"19","author":"Rim","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Electromagn. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-rsn:19960012","article-title":"MVDR vectorial lattice applied to space\u2013time processing for AEW radar with large instantaneous bandwidth","volume":"143","author":"Farina","year":"1996","journal-title":"IEE Proc.-Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.26866\/jees.2019.19.2.107","article-title":"Dwell time optimization of alert-confirm detection for active phased array radars","volume":"19","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Electromagn. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.26866\/jees.2020.20.3.190","article-title":"Modeling of monopulse radar signals reflected from ground clutter in a time domain considering doppler effects","volume":"20","author":"Nam","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Electromagn. Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1002\/2015RS005649","article-title":"Wave propagation simulation of radio occultations based on ECMWF refractivity profiles","volume":"50","author":"Benzon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11447006","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2010.5525315","article-title":"AESA upgrade option for Eurofighter captor radar","volume":"25","author":"Barclay","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JAMC2440.1","article-title":"Climatology of anomalous propagation radar echoes in a coastal area","volume":"49","author":"Mesnard","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1002\/met.1321","article-title":"Climatology of anomalous propagation radar over Douala, Cameroon","volume":"21","author":"Lenouo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Meteorol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2017.2786305","article-title":"Multiyear trans-horizon radio propagation measurements at 3.5 ghz","volume":"66","author":"Colussi","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez, R.N., and del R\u00edo, V.S. (2018). High temporal resolution refractivity retrieval from radar phase measurements. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10060896"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407867","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/407867","article-title":"Effects of atmospheric refraction on an airborne weather radar detection and correction method","volume":"2015","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8053","DOI":"10.1029\/2002RS002640","article-title":"Inversion for refractivity parameters from radar sea clutter","volume":"38","author":"Gerstoft","year":"2003","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2000RS002565","article-title":"Vertical profiling of atmospheric refractivity from ground-based GPS","volume":"37","author":"Lowry","year":"2002","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Wu, Z., and Wang, H. (2020). Inversion method of regional range-dependent surface ducts with a base layer by doppler weather radar echoes based on WRF model. Atmosphere, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos11070754"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1876","DOI":"10.1002\/2016RS006061","article-title":"Estimating refractivity from propagation loss in turbulent media","volume":"51","author":"Wagner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2006RS003617","article-title":"Signal strength variations at 2 GHz for three sea paths in the British Channel Islands: Detailed discussion and propagation modeling","volume":"42","author":"Gunashekar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1449","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-16-0046.1","article-title":"CASPER: Coupled air\u2013sea processes and electromagnetic ducting research","volume":"99","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habib, A., and Moh, S. (2019). Wireless channel models for over-the-sea communication: A comparative study. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9030443"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"054101","DOI":"10.1088\/1674-1056\/24\/5\/054101","article-title":"Influence of obstacle on electromagnetic wave propagation in evaporation duct with experiment verification","volume":"24","author":"Shi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1662","DOI":"10.1002\/mop.32205","article-title":"Estimation of abnormal wave propagation by a novel duct map based on the average normalized path loss","volume":"62","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Barrios, A.E. (2003, January 3\u20135). Considerations in the development of the advanced propagation model (APM) for U.S. Navy applications. Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference on Radar, Adelaide, SA, Australia."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.2478\/s13531-011-0049-y","article-title":"Brief review on PE method application to propagation channel modeling in sea environment","volume":"2","author":"Sirkova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Open Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levy, M. (2000). Parabolic Equation Methods for Electromagnetic Wave Propagation, The Institution of Engineering and Technology.","DOI":"10.1049\/PBEW045E"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"423","article-title":"Application of the split-step Fourier method to the numerical solution of nonlinear and variable coefficient wave equations","volume":"15","author":"Hardin","year":"1973","journal-title":"SIAM Rev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1109\/MAP.2016.2541600","article-title":"New Software Tool (GO+UTD) for visualization of wave propagation [testing ourselves]","volume":"58","author":"Ozgun","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Patterson, W.L. (2004). User Manual for Advanced Refractive Effects Prediction System (AREPS), Space Naval Warfare System Center."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0434(1995)010<0528:ACOTAW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A comparison of temperature and wind measurements from ACARS-equipped aircraft and Rawinsondes","volume":"10","author":"Schwartz","year":"1995","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6841239","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/6841239","article-title":"On the potential of 25 years (1991\u20132015) of rawinsonde measurements for elucidating climatological and spatiotemporal patterns of afternoon boundary layer depths over the contiguous US","volume":"2017","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1999)080<0407:TNGD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The NCAR GPS dropwindsonde","volume":"80","author":"Hock","year":"1999","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"ITU (2021, August 24). The Radio Refractive Index: Its Formula and Refractivity Data. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/R-REC-P.453\/en."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Korea Meteorological Administration (2021, August 24). Available online: https:\/\/www.kma.go.kr\/eng\/index.jsp."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, T.H., Go, M., Seo, C., and Choo, H. (2020). Analysis of the target detection performance of air-to-air airborne radar using long-range propagation simulation in abnormal atmospheric conditions. Appl. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/app10186440"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"National Geographic Information Institute (2021, August 24). Available online: https:\/\/www.ngii.go.kr\/eng\/main.do?."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"ITU (2021, August 24). Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases and Related Effects. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/R-REC-P.676-12-201908-I\/en."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"ITU (2021, August 24). Propagation Data and Prediction Methods Required for the Design of Terrestrial Line-of-Sight Systems. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/R-REC-P.530-17-201712-I."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"ITU (2021, August 24). Characteristics of Precipitation for Propagation Modelling, International Telecommunication Union 2017. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/R-REC-P.837-7-201706-I\/en."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"ITU (2021, August 24). Specific Attenuation Model for Rain for Use in Prediction Methods 2005. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/R-REC-P.838-3-200503-I\/en."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19044","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2810855","article-title":"Real measurement study for rain rate and rain attenuation conducted over 26 Ghz microwave 5G link system in Malaysia","volume":"6","author":"Shayea","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-com.2012.0298","article-title":"Development of rain attenuation model for Southeast Asia equatorial climate","volume":"7","author":"Nalinggam","year":"2013","journal-title":"IET Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1712791","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/1712791","article-title":"Rain attenuation study over an 18 GHz terrestrial microwave link in South Korea","volume":"2019","author":"Shrestha","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Shebani, N.M., Kaeib, A.F., and Zerek, A.R. (2017, January 28\u201330). Estimation of rain attenuation based on ITU-R model for terrestrial link in Libya. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference of Control Signal Processing, Kairouan, Tunisia."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958498","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/958498","article-title":"Prediction of rain attenuation and impact of rain in wave propagation at microwave frequency for tropical region (Uttarakhand, India)","volume":"2014","author":"Kestwal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Microw. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Islam, R., Rahman, T.A., and Karfaa, Y. (2003, January 21\u201324). Worst-month rain attenuation statistics for radio wave propagation study in Malaysia. Proceedings of the 9th Asia-Pacific Conference on Communications, Penang, Malaysia."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1109\/LAWP.2011.2168370","article-title":"On the uncertainty of refractivity height profile measurements","volume":"10","author":"Jicha","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Blake, L.V. (1991). Radar Range-Performance Analysis, Munro Pub. Co."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Mailloux, R.J. (2018). Phased Array Antenna Handbook, Artech House. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Nathanson, F.E., O\u2019Reilly, P.J., and Cohen, M.N. (2004). Radar Design Principles: Signal Processing and the Environment, Scitech Publ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2638","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpc.2011.07.017","article-title":"PETOOL: MATLAB-based one-way and two-way split-step parabolic equation tool for radiowave propagation over variable terrain","volume":"182","author":"Ozgun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Phys. Commun."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"ITU (2021, August 24). A Propagation Prediction Method for Aeronautical Mobile and Radionavigation Services Using the VHF, UHF and SHF Bands 2019. Available online: https:\/\/www.itu.int\/rec\/R-REC-P.528-4-201908-I\/en."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/19\/3943\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:08:43Z","timestamp":1760166523000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/19\/3943"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13193943"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13193943","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,2]]}}}