{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T17:50:50Z","timestamp":1792605050641,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,6]],"date-time":"2021-10-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633478400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41971395 and 42001278"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41971395 and 42001278"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The elimination of hunger is the top concern for developing countries and is the key to maintain national stability and security. Paddy rice occupies an essential status in food supply, whose accurate monitoring is of great importance for human sustainable development. As one of the most important paddy rice production countries in the world, Thailand has a favorable hot and humid climate for paddy rice growing, but the growth patterns of paddy rice are too complicated to construct promising growth models for paddy rice discrimination. To solve this problem, this study proposes a large-scale paddy rice mapping scheme, which uses time-series Sentinel-1 data to generate a convincing annual paddy rice map of Thailand. The proposed method extracts temporal statistical features of the time-series SAR images to overcome the intra-class variability due to different management practices and modifies the U-Net model with the fully connected Conditional Random Field (CRF) to maintain the edge of the fields. In this study, 758 Sentinel-1 images that covered the whole country from the end of 2018 to 2019 were acquired to generate the annual paddy rice map. The accuracy, precision, and recall of the resultant paddy rice map reached 91%, 87%, and 95%, respectively. Compared to SVM classifier and the U-Net model based on feature selection strategy (FS-U-Net), the proposed scheme achieved the best overall performance, which demonstrated the capability of overcoming the complex cultivation conditions and accurately identifying the fragmented paddy rice fields in Thailand. This study provides a promising tool for large-scale paddy rice monitoring in tropical production regions and has great potential in the global sustainable development of food and environment management.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193994","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,8]],"date-time":"2021-10-08T21:26:20Z","timestamp":1633728380000},"page":"3994","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":53,"title":["Paddy Rice Mapping in Thailand Using Time-Series Sentinel-1 Data and Deep Learning Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2508-6800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0088-8148","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4887-923X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sisi","family":"Wei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bo","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9280-8378","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9847-898X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yixian","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111470","article-title":"No pixel left behind: Toward integrating Earth Observations for agriculture into the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals framework","volume":"235","author":"Whitcraft","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. 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