{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T01:40:34Z","timestamp":1772847634531,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]],"date-time":"2021-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1633996800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["XDA20100101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA20100101"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41531174"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41531174"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It is of great significance for the validation of remotely sensed evapotranspiration (ET) products to solve the spatial-scale mismatch between site observations and remote sensing estimations. To overcome this challenge, this paper proposes a comprehensive framework for obtaining the ground truth ET at the satellite pixel scale (1 \u00d7 1 km resolution in MODIS satellite imagery). The main idea of this framework is to first quantitatively evaluate the spatial heterogeneity of the land surface, then combine the eddy covariance (EC)-observed ET (ET_EC) to be able to compare and optimize the upscaling methods (among five data-driven and three mechanism-driven methods) through direct validation and cross-validation, and finally use the optimal method to obtain the ground truth ET at the satellite pixel scale. The results showed that the ET_EC was superior over homogeneous underlying surfaces with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.34 mm\/d. Over moderately and highly heterogeneous underlying surfaces, the Gaussian process regression (GPR) method performed better (the RMSEs were 0.51 mm\/d and 0.60 mm\/d, respectively). Finally, an integrated method (namely, using the ET_EC for homogeneous surfaces and the GPR method for moderately and highly heterogeneous underlying surfaces) was proposed to obtain the ground truth ET over fifteen typical underlying surfaces in the Heihe River Basin. Furthermore, the uncertainty of ground truth ET was quantitatively evaluated. The results showed that the ground truth ET at the satellite pixel scale is relatively reliable with an uncertainty of 0.02\u20130.41 mm\/d. The upscaling framework proposed in this paper can be used to obtain the ground truth ET at the satellite pixel scale and its uncertainty, and it has great potential to be applied in more regions around the globe for remotely sensed ET products\u2019 validation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13204072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,13]],"date-time":"2021-10-13T06:38:41Z","timestamp":1634107121000},"page":"4072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Upscaling Evapotranspiration from a Single-Site to Satellite Pixel Scale"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2542-1480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiang","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Shaomin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7030-7516","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaofan","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Yanfei","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Technology Innovation Center for Remote Sensing Identification of Environmental Change, School of Geography, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China"}]},{"given":"Xinlei","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Ziwei","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1744-8974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tongren","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Lisheng","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geographical Sciences, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China"}]},{"given":"Yuan","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Xiao","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Qian","family":"Ju","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaodong","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shanghai Aerospace Electronic Technology Institute, Shanghai 201109, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"951","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09396","article-title":"Recent decline in the global land evapotranspiration trend due to limited moisture supply","volume":"467","author":"Jung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2618","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR020175","article-title":"The future of evapotranspiration: Global requirements for ecosystem functioning, carbon and climate feedbacks, agricultural management, and water resources","volume":"53","author":"Fisher","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. 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