{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,4]],"date-time":"2026-06-04T06:33:25Z","timestamp":1780554805778,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]],"date-time":"2021-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1634774400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008861","name":"United Kingdom Space Agency","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ST\/S001891\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ST\/S001891\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008861","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000271","name":"Science and Technology Facilities Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ST\/K000977\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ST\/K000977\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000271","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019M663073"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019M663073"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) onboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter provides remotely sensed imagery at the highest spatial resolution at 25\u201350 cm\/pixel of the surface of Mars. However, due to the spatial resolution being so high, the total area covered by HiRISE targeted stereo acquisitions is very limited. This results in a lack of the availability of high-resolution digital terrain models (DTMs) which are better than 1 m\/pixel. Such high-resolution DTMs have always been considered desirable for the international community of planetary scientists to carry out fine-scale geological analysis of the Martian surface. Recently, new deep learning-based techniques that are able to retrieve DTMs from single optical orbital imagery have been developed and applied to single HiRISE observational data. In this paper, we improve upon a previously developed single-image DTM estimation system called MADNet (1.0). We propose optimisations which we collectively call MADNet 2.0, which is based on a supervised image-to-height estimation network, multi-scale DTM reconstruction, and 3D co-alignment processes. In particular, we employ optimised single-scale inference and multi-scale reconstruction (in MADNet 2.0), instead of multi-scale inference and single-scale reconstruction (in MADNet 1.0), to produce more accurate large-scale topographic retrieval with boosted fine-scale resolution. We demonstrate the improvements of the MADNet 2.0 DTMs produced using HiRISE images, in comparison to the MADNet 1.0 DTMs and the published Planetary Data System (PDS) DTMs over the ExoMars Rosalind Franklin rover\u2019s landing site at Oxia Planum. Qualitative and quantitative assessments suggest the proposed MADNet 2.0 system is capable of producing pixel-scale DTM retrieval at the same spatial resolution (25 cm\/pixel) of the input HiRISE images.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13214220","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]],"date-time":"2021-10-21T23:27:39Z","timestamp":1634858859000},"page":"4220","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["MADNet 2.0: Pixel-Scale Topography Retrieval from Single-View Orbital Imagery of Mars Using Deep Learning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9170-6655","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu","family":"Tao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mullard Space Science Laboratory, Imaging Group, Department of Space and Climate Physics, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5077-3736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan-Peter","family":"Muller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mullard Space Science Laboratory, Imaging Group, Department of Space and Climate Physics, University College London, Holmbury St Mary, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Siting","family":"Xiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"},{"name":"Ministry of Natural Resources Key Laboratory for Geo-Environmental Monitoring of Great Bay Area & Guangdong Key Laboratory of Urban Informatics & Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Spatial Smart Sensing and Services, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susan J.","family":"Conway","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratoire de Plan\u00e9tologie et G\u00e9odynamique, CNRS, UMR 6112, Universit\u00e9s de Nantes, 44300 Nantes, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"17","article-title":"HRSC: The high resolution stereo camera of Mars Express","volume":"1240","author":"Neukum","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sci. 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