{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T22:54:47Z","timestamp":1773269687762,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,3]],"date-time":"2021-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1635897600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The mass accumulation of population in the larger cities of India has led to accelerated and unprecedented peripheral urban expansion over the last few decades. This rapid peripheral growth is characterized by an uncontrolled, low density, fragmented and haphazard patchwork of development popularly known as urban sprawl. The Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) has been one of the fastest-growing metropolitan areas in India and is experiencing rampant suburbanization and peripheral expansion. Hence, understanding urban growth and its dynamics in these rapidly changing environments is critical for city planners and resource managers. Furthermore, understanding urban expansion and urban growth patterns are essential for achieving inclusive and sustainable urbanization as defined by the United Nations in the Sustainable Development Goals (e.g., SDGs, 11.3). The present research attempts to quantify and model the urban growth dynamics of large and diverse metropolitan areas with a distinct methodology considering the case of KMA. In the study, land use and land cover (LULC) maps of KMA were prepared for three different years (i.e., for 1996, 2006, and 2016) through the classification of Landsat imagery using a support vector machine (SVM) classification approach. Then, change detection analysis, landscape metrics, a concentric zone approach, and Shannon\u2019s entropy approach were applied for spatiotemporal assessment and quantification of urban growth in KMA. The achieved classification accuracies were found to be 89.75%, 92.00%, and 92.75%, with corresponding Kappa values of 0.879, 0.904, and 0.912 for 1996, 2006, and 2016, respectively. It is concluded that KMA has been experiencing typical urban sprawl. The peri-urban areas (i.e., KMA-rural) are growing rapidly, and are characterized by leapfrogging and fragmented built-up area development, compared to the central KMA (i.e., KMA-urban), which has become more compact in recent years.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13214423","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,3]],"date-time":"2021-11-03T21:57:49Z","timestamp":1635976669000},"page":"4423","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["Monitoring Metropolitan Growth Dynamics for Achieving Sustainable Urbanization (SDG 11.3) in Kolkata Metropolitan Area, India"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1749-1382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sk","family":"Mithun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Haldia Government College, Vidyasagar University, Haldia 721657, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3166-5916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehebub","family":"Sahana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environment, Education & Development, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK"}]},{"given":"Subrata","family":"Chattopadhyay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Architecture and Regional Planning, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur 721302, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1911-3585","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brian Alan","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services Area, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Hayama 240-0115, Kanagawa, Japan"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4167-1690","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khaled Mohamed","family":"Khedher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia"},{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, High Institute of Technological Studies, Mrezgua University Campus, Nabeul 8000, Tunisia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3653-5771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ram","family":"Avtar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Environmental Earth Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forman, R.T.T. (1995). Land Mosaics: The Ecology of Landscapes and Regions, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781107050327"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"9","article-title":"Urban sprawl","volume":"10","author":"Wasserman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Reg. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"329","article-title":"Insights to urban dynamics through landscape spatial pattern analysis","volume":"18","author":"Ramachandra","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1080\/23754931.2016.1148069","article-title":"Analyzing urban dynamics of metropolitan Kolkata, India by using landscape metrics","volume":"2","author":"Mithun","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pap. Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3302","DOI":"10.3390\/su5083302","article-title":"The environmental impacts of sprawl: Emergent themes from the past decade of planning research","volume":"5","author":"Wilson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Torrens, P.M., and Alberti, M. (2000). Measuring Sprawl, Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (UCL)."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2010.2084072","article-title":"Monitoring urban sprawl using remote sensing and GIS techniques of a fast growing urban centre, India","volume":"4","author":"Rahman","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s12524-012-0209-4","article-title":"Urban built-up area assessment of Ranchi township using Cartosat-I stereopairs satellite images","volume":"41","author":"Pandey","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1068\/b2740","article-title":"A constrained CA model for the simulation and planning of sustainable urban forms by using GIS","volume":"28","author":"Yeh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Plann. B Plann. Des."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02991829","article-title":"Spatio-temporal analysis for monitoring urban growth\u2014A case study of Indore city","volume":"35","author":"Kumar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"26","article-title":"Measuring urban sprawl: A case study of Hyderabad","volume":"5","author":"Lata","year":"2001","journal-title":"GIS Dev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2009.08.001","article-title":"Quantifying the degree-of-freedom, degree-of-sprawl, and degree-of-goodness of urban growth from remote sensing data","volume":"30","author":"Bhatta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2010.02.002","article-title":"Urban sprawl measurement from remote sensing data","volume":"30","author":"Bhatta","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGarigal, K., and Marks, B.J. (1994). FRAGSTATS: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Quantifying Landscape Structure, Forest Science Department, Oregon State University.","DOI":"10.2737\/PNW-GTR-351"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.1068\/a3496","article-title":"The use of remote sensing and landscape metrics to describe structures and changes in urban land uses","volume":"34","author":"Herold","year":"2002","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. A"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Cabral, P., Geroyannis, H., Gilg, J.P., and Painho, M. (2005, January 26\u201328). Analysis and Modeling of Land-Use and Land-Cover Change in Sintra-Cascais Area. Proceedings of the 8th AGILE Conference on Geographic Information Science, Columbus, OH, USA."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160701280983","article-title":"Modelling of urban growth using spatial analysis techniques: A case study of Ajmer city (India)","volume":"29","author":"Jat","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(03)00075-0","article-title":"The spatiotemporal form of urban growth: Measurement, analysis and modeling","volume":"86","author":"Herold","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1007\/s12524-011-0141-z","article-title":"Entropy approach for assessment of urban growth: A case study of Jaipur, India","volume":"40","author":"Punia","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4733","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160802651967","article-title":"Analysis of urban growth pattern using remote sensing and GIS: A case study of Kolkata, India","volume":"30","author":"Bhatta","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"595","article-title":"Dynamics analysis of crop-landscape of agri-grazing-ecotone in Hobq desert","volume":"30","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Res. Agric. Mod."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-019-7996-9","article-title":"Utilizing Geospatial Information to Implement SDGs and Monitor their Progress","volume":"192","author":"Avtar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.148539","article-title":"Digitalization to achieve sustainable development goals: Steps towards a Smart Green Planet","volume":"794","author":"Mondejar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Mithun, S., and Chattopadhyay, S. (2013, January 28\u201330). Analyzing Spatio-Temporal Growth Dynamics of Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA). Proceedings of the 12th International Asian Urbanization Conference, Varanasi, India."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1080\/01431168908903939","article-title":"Review article digital change detection techniques using remotely-sensed data","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"1989","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"173","article-title":"Land use and land cover changes in arid region: The case new urbanized zone, northeast Cairo, Egypt","volume":"3","author":"Zaki","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geogr. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1557","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.02.170","article-title":"Analyzing urban spatial patterns and trend of urban growth using urban sprawl matrix: A study on Kolkata urban agglomeration, India","volume":"628\u2013629","author":"Sahana","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Ashok, K.D., Wadhwa, V., Thakur, B., and Costa, F.J. (2012). Assessment and Dynamics of Urban Growth in the City of Kolkata. Facets of Social Geography: International and Indian Perspectives, Foundation Books."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"KMDA (2019, December 05). KMDA Annual Report, Available online: http:\/\/www.kmdaonline.org\/html\/aar_2011.php."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"(2019, December 10). Census of India. Final Population Totals, Available online: http:\/\/censusindia.gov.in\/2011census\/censusinfodashboard\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.2307\/2529310","article-title":"An application of hierarchical Kappa-type statistics in the assessment of majority agreement among multiple observers","volume":"33","author":"Landis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.08.006","article-title":"Land cover classification and change analysis of the Twin Cities (Minnesota) Metropolitan Area by multitemporal Landsat remote sensing","volume":"98","author":"Yuan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00162741","article-title":"Indices of landscape pattern","volume":"1","author":"Krummel","year":"1988","journal-title":"Landsc. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1007\/s100219900011","article-title":"Quantifying landscape spatial pattern: What is the state of the art?","volume":"1","author":"Gustafson","year":"1998","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8009(97)00583-1","article-title":"Spatial landscape indices in a hedonic framework: An ecological economics analysis using GIS","volume":"23","author":"Geoghegan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ecol. Econ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1019140101212","article-title":"An integrated urban development and ecological simulation model","volume":"1","author":"Alberti","year":"2000","journal-title":"Integr. Assess."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Parker, D.C., Evans, T., and Meretsky, V. (2001, January 28\u201329). Measuring Emergent Properties of Agent-Based Landcover\/Landuse Models using Spatial Metrics. Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference of the International Society for Computational Economics, New Haven, CT, USA."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.09.015","article-title":"Monitoring urbanization in mega cities from space","volume":"117","author":"Esch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Zhang, Q. (2009). Spatial-Temporal Patterns of Urban Growth in Shanghai, China: Monitoring, Analysis, and Simulation. [Ph.D. Thesis, School of Architecture and Built Environment, KTH Royal Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2010.12.009","article-title":"A case study on the relation between city planning and urban growth using remote sensing and spatial metrics","volume":"100","author":"Pham","year":"2011","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2010.09.036","article-title":"The urban growth, size distribution and spatio-temporal dynamic pattern of the Yangtze River delta megalopolitan region, China","volume":"222","author":"Tian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2012.02.003","article-title":"Simulating urban growth processes incorporating a potential model with spatial metrics","volume":"20","author":"Kong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1080\/02723646.2013.778692","article-title":"Scaling effects of landscape metrics: A comparison of two methods","volume":"34","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2014.10.010","article-title":"A comparative study of urban expansion in Beijing, Tianjin and Shijiazhuang over the past three decades","volume":"134","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jensen, R.R., Gatrell, J.D., and McLean, D. (2007). Mapping, Measuring, and Modeling Urban Growth. Geo-Spatial Technologies in Urban Environments, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-69417-5"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2007.12.002","article-title":"Parsimony in landscape metrics: Strength, universality, and consistency","volume":"8","author":"Cushman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhatta, B. (2012). Urban Growth Analysis and Remote Sensing: A Case Study of Kolkata, India 1980\u20132010, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-4698-5"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.3390\/rs2061549","article-title":"Analysis and modeling of urban land cover change in Set\u00fabal and Sesimbra, Portugal","volume":"2","author":"Araya","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1890\/1051-0761(2002)012[0335:CEOEAT]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Comparative evaluation approaches to the study of habitat fragmentation","volume":"12","author":"McGarigal","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ecol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2003.10.033","article-title":"Analyzing spatial restructuring of land use patterns in a fast growing region using remote sensing and GIS","volume":"69","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Thomas, R.W. (1981). Information Statistics in Geography. Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography, The Invicta Press."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"83","article-title":"Measurement and monitoring of urban sprawl in a rapidly growing region using entropy","volume":"67","author":"Yeh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Smith, D.M. (1975). Patterns in Human Geography, Penguin."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1080\/0042098042000309748","article-title":"Quantifying urban form: Compactness versus \u201csprawl\u201d","volume":"42","author":"Tsai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Urban Stud."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Mithun, S. (2020). Quantifying and modeling metropolitan growth dynamics: A case study on Kolkata Metropolitan Area. [Ph.D. Thesis, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur]."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"29","article-title":"Urban sprawl: Metrics, dynamics and modelling using GIS","volume":"5","author":"Sudhira","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Cox, W. (2019, December 10). The Evolving Urban Form: Kolkata: 50 Mile City. Available online: http:\/\/www.newgeography.com\/content\/002620-the-evolving-urban-form-kolkata-50-mile-city."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahman, M., Avtar, R., Yunus, A.P., Dou, J., Misra, P., Takeuchi, W., Sahu, N., Kumar, P., Johnson, B.A., and Dasgupta, R. (2020). Monitoring Effect of Spatial Growth on Land Surface Temperature in Dhaka. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12071191"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/21\/4423\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:25:16Z","timestamp":1760167516000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/21\/4423"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,3]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13214423"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13214423","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,3]]}}}