{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,10]],"date-time":"2026-01-10T22:29:22Z","timestamp":1768084162326,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,8]],"date-time":"2021-11-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636329600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Northeast region of Brazil (NEB) has a high rate of deaths from lightning strikes (18% of the country\u2019s total). The region has states, such as Piau\u00ed, with high mortality rates (1.8 deaths per million), much higher than the national rate (0.8) and the NEB rate (0.5). In this sense, the present work analyzes the microphysical characteristics of clouds with and without the occurrence of total lightning. For this purpose, data from the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS), TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) and Precipitation Radar (PR), aboard the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite from 1998 to 2013 were used. The TRMM data were analyzed to establish a relationship between the occurrence of lightning and the clouds\u2019 microphysical characteristics, comparing them as a function of lightning occurrence classes, spatial location and atmospheric profiles. A higher lightning occurrence is associated with higher values of ice water path (&gt;38.9 kg m\u22122), rain water path (&gt;2 kg m\u22122), convective precipitation (&gt;5 mm h\u22121) and surface precipitation (&gt;7 mm h\u22121), in addition to slightly higher freezing level height values. Reflectivity observations (&gt;36 dBZ) demonstrated typical convective profile curves, with higher values associated with classes with higher lightning densities (class with more than 6.8 flash km\u22122 year\u22121).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13214491","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,8]],"date-time":"2021-11-08T22:08:41Z","timestamp":1636409321000},"page":"4491","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Clouds\u2019 Microphysical Properties and Their Relationship with Lightning Activity in Northeast Brazil"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6427-3356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lizandro Pereira","family":"de Abreu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Federal do Piau\u00ed (IFPI), Campus Corrente, Rua 06, S\/N, Nova Corrente, Corrente 64980-000, Brazil"},{"name":"Programa de P\u00f3s-Gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em Ci\u00eancias Clim\u00e1ticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Av. Senador Salgado Filho 3000, Lagoa Nova, Natal 59078-970, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Weber Andrade","family":"Gon\u00e7alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de P\u00f3s-Gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em Ci\u00eancias Clim\u00e1ticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Av. Senador Salgado Filho 3000, Lagoa Nova, Natal 59078-970, Brazil"},{"name":"Departamento de Ci\u00eancias Atmosf\u00e9ricas e Clim\u00e1ticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Av. Senador Salgado Filho 3000, Lagoa Nova, Natal 59078-970, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Enrique Vieira","family":"Mattos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Recursos Naturais, Universidade Federal de Itajub\u00e1 (UNIFEI), Av. BPS, 1303, Itajub\u00e1 37500-903, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7607-1727","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro Rodrigues","family":"Mutti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de P\u00f3s-Gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em Ci\u00eancias Clim\u00e1ticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Av. Senador Salgado Filho 3000, Lagoa Nova, Natal 59078-970, Brazil"},{"name":"Departamento de Ci\u00eancias Atmosf\u00e9ricas e Clim\u00e1ticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Av. Senador Salgado Filho 3000, Lagoa Nova, Natal 59078-970, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4307-2832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniele Torres","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de P\u00f3s-Gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em Ci\u00eancias Clim\u00e1ticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Av. Senador Salgado Filho 3000, Lagoa Nova, Natal 59078-970, Brazil"},{"name":"Departamento de Estat\u00edstica, Universidade Federal do Piau\u00ed (UFPI), Av. Campus Universit\u00e1rio Ministro Petr\u00f4nio Portella, Ininga, Teresina 64049-550, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5260-8937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcos Paulo Ara\u00fajo","family":"da Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CommSensLab-UPC, Department of Signal Theory and Communications (TSC), Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya (UPC), Campus Nord, E-08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2015.09.010","article-title":"Monitoring vegetative drought dynamics in the Brazilian semiarid region","volume":"214\u2013215","author":"Cunha","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-015-2636-8","article-title":"Global semi-arid climate change over last 60 years","volume":"46","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2759","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2019.1697008","article-title":"NDVI time series stochastic models for the forecast of vegetation dynamics over desertification hotspots","volume":"41","author":"Mutti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Gomes, R., and Lima, K.C. (2021). Influence of the modes of climate variability in the Tropical Pacific and Atlantic on accumulated rainfall and reservoir water volumes in the Northeast Brazil. Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.11137\/2018_3_731_741","article-title":"Impact of the Internnual Variability of Precipitation on the Reservoirs of the Semiarid Northeast Brazil Region","volume":"41","author":"Medeiros","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anu\u00e1rio do Instituto de Geoci\u00eancias"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1957)014<0426:TCS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Thunderstorm Charge Separation","volume":"14","author":"Reynolds","year":"1957","journal-title":"J. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"102195","article-title":"Assessment of the total lightning flash rate density (FRD) in northeast Brazil (NEB) based on TRMM orbital data from 1998 to 2013","volume":"93","author":"Mattos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-87-8-1057","article-title":"Where are the most: Intense thunderstorms on Earth?","volume":"87","author":"Zipser","year":"2006","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2051","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-14-00193.1","article-title":"Where Are the Lightning Hotspots on Earth?","volume":"97","author":"Albrecht","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2012.12.006","article-title":"Lightning casualty demographics in Brazil and their implications for safety rules","volume":"135\u2013136","author":"Cardoso","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13329","DOI":"10.1029\/JD094iD11p13329","article-title":"The detection of lightning from geostationary orbit","volume":"94","author":"Christian","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1590\/S0102-261X2009000100001","article-title":"Detec\u00e7\u00e3o de descargas el\u00e9tricas atmosf\u00e9ricas em sistemas convectivos com dados do SIMEPAR","volume":"27","author":"Lima","year":"2009","journal-title":"Revista Brasileira de Geof\u00edsica"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Naccarato, K.P. (2001). Estudo de Rel\u00e2mpagos no Brasil com base na An\u00e1lise de Desempenho do Sistema de Localiza\u00e7\u00e3o de Tempestades, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13151","DOI":"10.1029\/JD094iD11p13151","article-title":"The tripole structure of thunderstorms","volume":"94","author":"Williams","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-13-1085-2013","article-title":"Using a cloud electrification model to study relationships between lightning activity and cloud microphysical structure","volume":"13","author":"Formenton","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-20-107-2002","article-title":"A study of the relationship between cloud-to-ground lightning and precipitation in the convective weather system in China","volume":"20","author":"Zhou","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-017-2278-3","article-title":"Spatial and temporal analysis of a 17-year lightning climatology over Bangladesh with LIS data","volume":"134","author":"Dewan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2020.105350","article-title":"On the association between lightning and precipitation microphysics","volume":"207","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-8095(00)00086-7","article-title":"Some aspects of the correlation between lightning and rain activities in thunderstorms","volume":"56","author":"Soula","year":"2000","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD014756","article-title":"Electrification of precipitating systems over the Amazon: Physical processes of thunderstorm development","volume":"116","author":"Albrecht","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3180","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI3788.1","article-title":"Intraseasonal forcing of convection and lightning activity in the southern Amazon as a function of cross-equatorial flow","volume":"19","author":"Petersen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Petersen, W.A., Deierling, W.K., Gauthier, M.L., and Christian, H.J. (2021, October 09). Precipitation Ice and Lightning: From Global to Cell Scales. Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/268372661_Precipitation_Ice_and_Lightning_From_Global_to_Cell_Scales."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Abreu, L.P. (2018). Rel\u00e2mpagos no Nordeste do Brasil: Ocorr\u00eancia, Variabilidade Espa\u00e7o-Temporal e Rela\u00e7\u00e3o com Microf\u00edsica das Nuvens, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4670","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025772","article-title":"Electrification life cycle of incipient thunderstorms","volume":"122","author":"Mattos","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3566","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2001)014<3566:RVITCO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Regional Variability in Tropical Convection: Observations from TRMM","volume":"14","author":"Petersen","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13213","DOI":"10.1029\/JD094iD11p13213","article-title":"The relationship between lightning type and convective state of thunderclouds","volume":"94","author":"Williams","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-8095(99)00011-3","article-title":"The behavior of total lightning activity in severe Florida thunderstorms","volume":"51","author":"Williams","year":"1999","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-382225-3.00111-0","article-title":"Clouds and Fog, Cloud Microphysics","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Lamb","year":"2015","journal-title":"Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Wallace, J.M., and Hobbs, P.V. (2006). Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey, Elsevier. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carey, L.D., Schultz, E.V., Schultz, C.J., Deierling, W., Petersen, W.A., Bain, A.L., and Pickering, K.E. (2019). An Evaluation of Relationships between Radar-Inferred Kinematic and Microphysical Parameters and Lightning Flash Rates in Alabama Storms. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10120796"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4005","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD002347","article-title":"Global frequency and distribution of lightning as observed from space by the Optical Transient Detector","volume":"108","author":"Christian","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2893","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL073017","article-title":"Parameterization-based uncertainty in future lightning flash density","volume":"44","author":"Clark","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1998)015<0809:TTRMMT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Sensor Package","volume":"15","author":"Kummerow","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ACH15-1","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JD002066","article-title":"Evaluation of lightning flash rate parameterizations for use in a global chemical transport model","volume":"107","author":"Allen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petersen, W.A., Christian, H.J., and Rutledge, S.A. (2005). TRMM observations of the global relationship between ice water content and lightning. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32.","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL023236"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3421","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(01)00134-0","article-title":"Origin and variability of upper tropospheric nitrogen oxides and ozone at northern mid-latitudes","volume":"35","author":"Grewe","year":"2001","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D16210","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD009598","article-title":"Total lightning activity as an indicator of updraft characteristics","volume":"113","author":"Deierling","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D15210","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD009700","article-title":"The relationship between lightning activity and ice fluxes in thunderstorms","volume":"113","author":"Deierling","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, N.-Y., Gopalan, K., and Albrecht, R.I. (2012). Application of lightning to passive microwave convective and stratiform partitioning in passive microwave rainfall retrieval algorithm over land from TRMM. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JD017812"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9481","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD023470","article-title":"An improved lightning flash rate parameterization developed from Colorado DC3 thunderstorm data for use in cloud-resolving chemical transport models","volume":"120","author":"Basarab","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105166","article-title":"The relationship between lightning flash rate and ice-related volume derived from dual-polarization radar","volume":"248","author":"Hayashi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12665","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-14-12665-2014","article-title":"Using cloud ice flux to parametrise large-scale lightning","volume":"14","author":"Finney","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11428","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD030950","article-title":"Thunderstorm Efficiency Regimes in South America as Observed by STARNET and TRMM","volume":"124","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2010.11.007","article-title":"Cloud-to-ground lightning and Mesoscale Convective Systems","volume":"99","author":"Mattos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-11-00130.1","article-title":"Toward a Global Climatology of Severe Hailstorms as Estimated by Satellite Passive Microwave Imagers","volume":"25","author":"Cecil","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Anselmo, E.M. (2015). Morfologia das Tempestades El\u00e9tricas na Am\u00e9rica do Sul. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universidade de S\u00e3o Paulo]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, P., Zhou, Y., Xiao, H., Liu, J., Gao, J., and Ge, F. (2017). Total Lightning Flash Activity Response to Aerosol over China Area. Atmosphere, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos8020026"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2399","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-10-05006.1","article-title":"Orogenic Convection in Subtropical South America as Seen by the TRMM Satellite","volume":"139","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) (2010). Sinopse do Censo Demogr\u00e1fico 2010, IBGE."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1127\/0941-2948\/2013\/0507","article-title":"K\u00f6ppen\u2019s climate classification map for Brazil","volume":"22","author":"Alvares","year":"2013","journal-title":"Meteorologische Zeitschrift"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-016-1865-z","article-title":"Climatology and trend analysis of extreme precipitation in subregions of Northeast Brazil","volume":"130","author":"Oliveira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.11137\/2019_2_137_148","article-title":"Analysis of Climate Extreme Indices in the Northeast Brazil and the Brazilian Amazon in the Period from 1980 to 2013","volume":"42","author":"Silva","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anuario do Instituto de Geociencias"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2019.1643940","article-title":"Spatial and temporal assessment of the extreme and daily precipitation of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite in Northeast Brazil","volume":"41","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49710343505","article-title":"Dynamics of climatic hazards in northeast Brazil","volume":"103","author":"Hastenrath","year":"1977","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.20396\/td.v8i1.8637425","article-title":"Entendendo o Tempo e o Clima na Am\u00e9rica do Sul O Sol como Fonte de Energia","volume":"8","author":"Reboita","year":"2012","journal-title":"Terrae Didatica"},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"19","article-title":"V\u00f3rtices Cicl\u00f4nicos Da Alta Troposfera No Oceano Atl\u00e2ntico Sul","volume":"1","author":"Gan","year":"1986","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusa.v33i6.10775","article-title":"Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortices in the tropical South Atlantic","volume":"33","author":"Kousky","year":"1981","journal-title":"Tellus"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Houze, R.A. (1993). Cloud Dynamics, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3234","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1993)121<3234:SCARPO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Structural Characteristics and Radiative Properties of Tropical Cloud Clusters","volume":"121","author":"Machado","year":"1993","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1590\/S0102-77862011000200009","article-title":"An\u00e1lise do comportamento das trovoadas no estado de Alagoas, previs\u00e3o \u00e0 curto prazo","volume":"26","author":"Brito","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1403","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-015-1166-y","article-title":"On Frontal Zone Analysis in the Tropical Region of the Northeast Brazil","volume":"173","author":"Fedorova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/176238","article-title":"Easterly Wave Disturbances over Northeast Brazil: An Observational Analysis","volume":"2015","author":"Gomes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj1965.55.2_205","article-title":"Tropical Cloudiness over the South Atlantic Ocean","volume":"55","author":"Yamazaki","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Japan"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"NASA (2017, May 03). Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) Instrument Overview, Available online: https:\/\/lightning.nsstc.nasa.gov\/lis\/overview_lis_instrument.html."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025532","article-title":"Global distribution and properties of continuing current in lightning","volume":"122","author":"Bitzer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2002)019<1318:PAOTOT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Performance Assessment of the Optical Transient Detector and Lightning Imaging Sensor. Part I: Predicted Diurnal Variability","volume":"19","author":"Boccippio","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Christian, H.J., Blakeslee, R.J., Goodman, S.J., and Mach, D.M. (2021, October 09). Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document (ATBD) for the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS), Available online: https:\/\/eospso.gsfc.nasa.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/atbd\/atbd-lis-01.pdf."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1988)027<1369:ACOTOP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Comparison of the Optical Pulse Characteristics of Intracloud and Cloud-to-Ground Lightning as Observed above Clouds","volume":"27","author":"Goodman","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"NASA (2017, May 03). TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI) 2A12, Available online: https:\/\/disc.gsfc.nasa.gov\/precipitation\/documentation\/documentation\/TRMM_README\/TRMM_2A12_readme.shtml."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Banze, B.E. (2016). Avalia\u00e7\u00e3o dos Modelos de Estimativa de Precipita\u00e7\u00e3o do TRMM em Mo\u00e7ambique, Universidade de S\u00e3o Paulo."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"NASA (2021, January 14). TRMM Instruments, Available online: https:\/\/gpm.nasa.gov\/missions\/TRMM\/satellite."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"NASA (2015). Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Precipitation Proceassing System: File Specification 2A25, NASA."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"De Oliveira, P.T. (2014). Estudo Estat\u00edstico Sobre Eventos de Precipita\u00e7\u00e3o Intensa no Nordeste do Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Wilks, D.S. (2006). Statistical Methods in the Atmospheric Sciences, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Chambers, J.M., Freeny, A.E., and Heiberger, R.M. (1992). Analysis of Variance; Designed Experiments. Statistical Models in S, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/0360-8352(96)00127-1","article-title":"Robustness of the ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer statistical tests","volume":"31","author":"Driscoll","year":"1996","journal-title":"Comput. Ind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.2307\/3001913","article-title":"Comparing Individual Means in the Analysis of Variance","volume":"5","author":"Tukey","year":"1949","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.2307\/2347973","article-title":"An Extension of Shapiro and Wilk\u2019s W Test for Normality to Large Samples","volume":"31","author":"Royston","year":"1982","journal-title":"Appl. Stat."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1974.10482955","article-title":"Robust Tests for the Equality of Variances","volume":"69","author":"Brown","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/65.2.297","article-title":"On a Measure of Lack of Fit in Time Series Models","volume":"65","author":"Ljung","year":"1978","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"Rodrigues, D.T. (2019). An\u00e1lise de Eventos Extremos de Precipita\u00e7\u00e3o no Nordeste do Brasil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.200611141","article-title":"Error bars in experimental biology","volume":"177","author":"Cumming","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/5916150","article-title":"Climatological Behavior of Precipitating Clouds in the Northeast Region of Brazil","volume":"2017","author":"Palharini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025142","article-title":"Polarimetric radar characteristics of storms with and without lightning activity","volume":"121","author":"Mattos","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(2002)130<0802:RPMALC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Radar, Passive Microwave, and Lightning Characteristics of Precipitating Systems in the Tropics","volume":"130","author":"Toracinta","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1994)122<1751:TVPORR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Vertical Profile of Radar Reflectivity of Convective Cells: A Strong Indicator of Storm Intensity and Lightning Probability?","volume":"122","author":"Zipser","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torenbeek, E. (2013). Appendix B\u2014International Standard Atmosphere: Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere. Advanced Aircraft Design: Conceptual Design, Analysis and Optimization of Subsonic Civil Airplanes, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118568101"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Cavcar, M. (2021, October 08). The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Available online: http:\/\/fisicaatmo.at.fcen.uba.ar\/practicas\/ISAweb.pdf."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Agency, E.A.S. (2021, October 08). Definitions and Abbreviations used in Certification Specifications for Products, Parts and Appliances: CS-Definitions. Available online: https:\/\/www.easa.europa.eu\/sites\/default\/files\/dfu\/CS-Definitions\u2014Amendment2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1029\/2000GL012247","article-title":"Discrimination of cloud and rain liquid water path by groundbased polarized microwave radiometry","volume":"28","author":"Czekala","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2011.08.010","article-title":"Lightning and the African ITCZ","volume":"73","author":"Collier","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Solar-Terrestrial Phys."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"1142","article-title":"Estudo climatol\u00f3gico da posi\u00e7\u00f5o da ZCIT no atl\u00e2ntico equatorial e sua influ\u00eancia sobre o Nordeste do Brasil","volume":"11","author":"Melo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Congr. Bras. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2016.04.006","article-title":"Lightning climatology in the Congo Basin","volume":"178\u2013179","author":"Soula","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1590\/S0102-77862010000200004","article-title":"Regimes de precipita\u00e7\u00e3o na Am\u00e9rica do Sul: Uma revis\u00e3o bibliogr\u00e1fica","volume":"25","author":"Reboita","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4137","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2000)013<4137:COFLAF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Comparison of Freezing-Level Altitudes from the NCEP Reanalysis with TRMM Precipitation Radar Brightband Data","volume":"13","author":"Harris","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105019","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105019","article-title":"Potential use of the GLM for nowcasting and data assimilation","volume":"242","author":"Vendrasco","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1177\/0309133318825285","article-title":"Influence of land cover on lightning and convective precipitation over the European continent","volume":"43","author":"Soriano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Phys. Geogr. Earth Environ."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4293","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-19-0389.1","article-title":"Diurnal Cycles of Precipitation and Lightning in the Tropics Observed by TRMM3G68, GSMaP, LIS, and WWLLN","volume":"33","author":"Minobe","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican1188-88","article-title":"The Electrification of Thunderstorms","volume":"259","author":"Williams","year":"1988","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-8095(97)00086-0","article-title":"Convective versus stratiform rainfall: An ice-microphysical and kinematic conceptual model","volume":"47\u201348","author":"Steiner","year":"1998","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2223","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2001)040<2223:GLVCBC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Global Lightning Variations Caused by Changes in Thunderstorm Flash Rate and by Changes in the Number of Thunderstorms","volume":"39","author":"Williams","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2644","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4518","article-title":"Daily gridded meteorological variables in Brazil (1980\u20132013)","volume":"2659","author":"Xavier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takayabu, Y.N. (2006). Rain-yield per flash calculated from TRMM PR and LIS data and its relationship to the contribution of tall convective rain. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006GL027531"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2008.06.010","article-title":"The influence of topography on the cloud-to-ground lightning density in South Brazil","volume":"91","author":"Bourscheidt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2012.01.013","article-title":"Characterization of the lightning activity of \u201cRel\u00e1mpago del Catatumbo\u201d","volume":"77","author":"Nicora","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Solar-Terrestrial Phys."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"1334","article-title":"Din\u00e2mica das Chuvas no Nordeste Brasileiro","volume":"1","author":"Molion","year":"2002","journal-title":"An. Congr. Bras. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_107","unstructured":"Uvo, C.B. (1989). A Zona de Converg\u00eancia Intertropical (ZCIT) e Sua Rela\u00e7\u00e3o Com a Precipita\u00e7\u00e3o na Regi\u00e3o Norte do Nordeste Brasileiro. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais]."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7359","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL061767","article-title":"Severe convection and lightning in subtropical South America","volume":"41","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0434(1997)012<0449:WSCTGL>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Warm Season Cloud-to-Ground Lightning\u2013Precipitation Relationships in the South-Central United States","volume":"12","author":"Sheridan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2000)039<1341:BHCAQU>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Bulk Hydrometeor Classification and Quantification Using Polarimetric Radar Data: Synthesis of Relations","volume":"39","author":"Straka","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"(2010). Radar for Meteorologists, Rinehart Publications. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105120","article-title":"Lightning activity and its associations with cloud structures in a rainstorm dominated by warm precipitation","volume":"246","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JAMC1454.1","article-title":"The Relationship of Lightning Activity with Microwave Brightness Temperatures and Spaceborne Radar Reflectivity Profiles in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean","volume":"46","author":"Katsanos","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-007-2063-8","article-title":"Lightning activity and precipitation structure of hailstorms","volume":"50","author":"Feng","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, C., Cecil, D.J., Zipser, E.J., Kronfeld, K., and Robertson, R. (2012). Relationships between lightning flash rates and radar reflectivity vertical structures in thunderstorms over the tropics and subtropics. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 117.","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD017123"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2013.01.006","article-title":"The GOES-R Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM)","volume":"125\u2013126","author":"Goodman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/21\/4491\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:27:47Z","timestamp":1760167667000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/21\/4491"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,8]]},"references-count":116,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13214491"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13214491","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,8]]}}}