{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T21:19:33Z","timestamp":1778879973585,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]],"date-time":"2021-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636848000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The demonstration of a newly developed compact thermal imager (CTI) on the International Space Station (ISS) has provided not only a technology advancement but a rich high-resolution dataset on global clouds, atmospheric and land emissions. This study showed that the free-running CTI instrument could be calibrated to produce scientifically useful radiance imagery of the atmosphere, clouds, and surfaces with a vertical resolution of ~460 m at limb and a horizontal resolution of ~80 m at nadir. The new detector demonstrated an excellent sensitivity to detect the weak limb radiance perturbations modulated by small-scale atmospheric gravity waves. The CTI\u2019s high-resolution imaging was used to infer vertical cloud temperature profiles from a side-viewing geometry. For nadir imaging, the combined high-resolution and high-sensitivity capabilities allowed the CTI to better separate cloud and surface emissions, including those in the planetary boundary layer (PBL) that had small contrast against the background surface. Finally, based on the ISS\u2019s orbit, the stable detector performance and robust calibration algorithm produced valuable diurnal observations of cloud and surface emissions with respect to solar local time during May\u2013October 2019, when the CTI had nearly continuous operation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13224578","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]],"date-time":"2021-11-14T20:51:53Z","timestamp":1636923113000},"page":"4578","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Compact Thermal Imager (CTI) for Atmospheric Remote Sensing"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3490-9437","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dong L.","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Donald E.","family":"Jennings","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"},{"name":"Science Systems and Applications, Inc., Lanham, MD 20706, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kwong-Kit","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"},{"name":"Science Systems and Applications, Inc., Lanham, MD 20706, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Murzy D.","family":"Jhabvala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"James A.","family":"Limbacher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"},{"name":"Science Systems and Applications, Inc., Lanham, MD 20706, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Flatley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genesis Engineering Services, Inc., Lanham, MD 20706, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kyu-Myong","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anh T.","family":"La","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ross J.","family":"Salawitch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luke D.","family":"Oman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Universities Space Research Association, Columbia, MD 21046, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4651-0079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas R.","family":"Holmes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Douglas C.","family":"Morton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tilak","family":"Hewagama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert J.","family":"Swap","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5432","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.58.005432","article-title":"Strained-layer-superlattice-based compact thermal imager for the International Space Station","volume":"58","author":"Jhabvala","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gille, J., Barnett, J., Arter, P., Barker, M., Bernath, P., Boone, C., Cavanaugh, C., Chow, J., Coffey, M., and Craft, J. (2008). High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder: Experiment overview, recovery, and validation of initial temperature data. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD008824"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Iii, J.M.R., Mlynczak, M.G., Gordley, L.L., Tansock, J.J.J., and Esplin, R.W. (1999, January 20). Overview of the SABER experiment and preliminary calibration results. Proceedings of the SPIE, The International Society for Optical Engineering, Denver, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1029\/2008RG000267","article-title":"Tropical tropopause layer","volume":"47","author":"Fueglistaler","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2041","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1217104110","article-title":"Ice nucleation and dehydration in the Tropical Tropopause Layer","volume":"110","author":"Jensen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7848","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL083647","article-title":"Observational Evidence of Horizontal Transport-Driven Dehydration in the TTL","volume":"46","author":"Pan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"52","article-title":"Retrieval of PSC properties from MIPAS ENVISAT measurements, Optical Remote Sensing of the Atmosphere and Clouds II","volume":"4150","author":"Echle","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Soc. Optics Photonics"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2269","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2005.07.031","article-title":"Remote sounding of atmospheric gravity waves with satellite limb and nadir techniques","volume":"37","author":"Wu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, G., and Di Girolamo, L. (2006). Cloud fraction errors for trade wind cumuli from EOS-Terra instruments. Geophys. Res. Lett., 33.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006GL027088"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"3329","article-title":"Spatial and temporal varying thresholds for cloud detection in satellite imagery geoscience and remote sensing symposium","volume":"2007","author":"Jedlovec","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1432.1","article-title":"Viewing Geometry Dependencies in MODIS Cloud Products","volume":"27","author":"Maddux","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, K.-K., Jhabvala, M., Jennings, D., Turck, K., La, A., Wu, D., Hewagama, T., Holmes, T., Flatley, T., and Cillis, A. (2021). Remote temperature sensing by the CompactThermal Imager from the International SpaceStation. Appl. Opt.","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.440611"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jennings, D.E., Jhabvala, M., Tucker, C.J., Lunsford, A.W., La, A.T., Flatley, T.P., Choi, K.K., Wu, D.L., Morton, D.C., and Holmes, T.R. (2022). He Compact Thermal Imager (CTI): A Flight Demonstration of New Infrared Technology for Earth Observations, In Preparation.","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.450442"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2013.07.004","article-title":"Radiative transfer through terrestrial atmosphere and ocean: Software package SCIATRAN","volume":"133","author":"Rozanov","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1468","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JA009430","article-title":"NRLMSISE-00 empirical model of the atmosphere: Statistical comparisons and scientific issues","volume":"107","author":"Picone","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3137\/ao.410105","article-title":"An overview of the past, present, and future of gravity-wave drag parameterization for numerical climate and weather prediction models","volume":"41","author":"Kim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Atmos.-Ocean"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alexander, M.J., Gille, J., Cavanaugh, C., Coffey, M., Craig, C., Eden, T., Francis, G., Halvorson, C., Hannigan, J., and Khosravi, R. (2008). Global estimates of gravity wave momentum flux from High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder observations. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 113.","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD008807"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3695","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JAS2489.1","article-title":"Global Gravity Wave Variances from Aura MLS: Characteristics and Interpretation","volume":"65","author":"Wu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1029\/98GL00640","article-title":"MSX satellite observations of thunderstorm-generated gravity waves in mid-wave infrared images of the upper stratosphere","volume":"25","author":"Dewan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-12-1701-2012","article-title":"Gravity wave variances and propagation derived from AIRS radiances","volume":"12","author":"Gong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14937","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-17-14937-2017","article-title":"First tomographic observations of gravity waves by the infrared limb imager GLORIA","volume":"17","author":"Krisch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.637","article-title":"Recent developments in gravity-wave effects in climate models and the global distribution of gravity-wave momentum flux from observations and models","volume":"136","author":"Alexander","year":"2010","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-83-12-1771","article-title":"THE CLOUDSAT MISSION AND THE A-TRAIN","volume":"83","author":"Stephens","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9485","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-11-9485-2011","article-title":"Remote sensing the vertical profile of cloud droplet effective radius, thermodynamic phase, and temperature","volume":"11","author":"Martins","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1672","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-20-0325.1","article-title":"Global Patterns of Hottest, Coldest, and Extreme Diurnal Variability on Earth","volume":"102","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3725","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0559.1","article-title":"Observed Variability of Cloud Frequency and Cloud-Base Height within 3600 m above the Surface over the Contiguous United States","volume":"30","author":"An","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2019). Global Volcanism Program Report on Sarychev Peak (Russia). Bull. Glob. Volcanism Netw., 44."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fisher, J.B., Lee, B., Purdy, A.J., Halverson, G.H., Dohlen, M.B., Cawse-Nicholson, K., Wang, A., Anderson, R.G., Aragon, B., and Arain, M.A. (2020). ECOSTRESS: NASA\u2019s Next Generation Mission to Measure Evapotranspiration from the International Space Station. Water Resour. Res., 56.","DOI":"10.1029\/2019WR026058"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6468","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrd.50322","article-title":"SMILES ice cloud products","volume":"118","author":"Millan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9457","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-18-9457-2018","article-title":"The diurnal cycle of cloud profiles over land and ocean between 51\u00b0 S and 51\u00b0 N, seen by the CATS spaceborne lidar from the International Space Station","volume":"18","author":"Noel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49712353806","article-title":"Diurnal variation and life-cycle of deep convective systems over the tropical pacific warm pool","volume":"123","author":"Chen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, B., Soden, B., and Wu, X. (2004). Diurnal cycle of convection, clouds, and water vapor in the tropical upper troposphere: Satellites versus a general circulation model. J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 109.","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JD004117"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-52437-6","article-title":"Diurnal variations of cloud and relative humidity profiles across the tropics","volume":"9","author":"Chepfer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10639","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-10-10639-2010","article-title":"Southeast Pacific stratocumulus clouds, precipitation and boundary layer structure sampled along 20\u00b0 S during VOCALS-Rex","volume":"10","author":"Bretherton","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1306","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2004)017<1306:TIOADO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The impact of Amazonian deforestation on dry season rainfall","volume":"17","author":"Negri","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18110","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1302584110","article-title":"Increased dry-season length over southern Amazonia in recent decades and its implication for future climate projection","volume":"110","author":"Fu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/22\/4578\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:30:03Z","timestamp":1760167803000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/22\/4578"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13224578"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13224578","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,14]]}}}