{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:32:00Z","timestamp":1760236320785,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]],"date-time":"2021-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637280000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"British Geological Survey University Funding Initiative (BUFI) PhD studentship (S448)","award":["S448"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S448"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coastal dunes play an important role in coastal erosion risk management, where they act as a dynamic natural sea defence line. Formby coast is part of the Sefton coast in the Northwest of England and is one of the largest and most rapidly evolving sand dune systems in the UK. Such dune systems require continuous comprehensive monitoring activity to understand their dynamics. In this research, we investigate the use of airborne LiDAR digital terrain model DTMs for monitoring the dynamics of the sand dunes at Formby between 1999 and 2020. We found that the rate of elevation change for the beach and the dune areas ranges from \u22120.78 to 0.02 m\/year and \u22120.92 to 0.73 m\/year, respectively. The beach and the frontal dunes have had significant sand erosion, while the inner dunes gained sand during the measurement period. Vegetated areas remained unchanged due to the impact of vegetation in stabilizing the movement of the dunes. Formby beach had a volume loss of about 907,000 m3 in the last 21 years, while the dunes had a volume increase of about 1,049,000 m3 over the same period. The total volume of the entire dune system, consisting of both the beach and dune areas, remained unchanged, which indicates that the growth of the inland dunes is fed by sand from the beach. All the volumetric changes occurred due to sand redistribution within the system, with erosion along the beach, and deposition and erosion in the dune areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13224665","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]],"date-time":"2021-11-19T08:29:17Z","timestamp":1637310557000},"page":"4665","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Monitoring the Dynamics of Formby Sand Dunes Using Airborne LiDAR DTMs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2755-8130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed Mutasim Abdalla","family":"Mahmoud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Nottingham Geospatial Institute, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2TU, UK"},{"name":"British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6921-2843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ekbal","family":"Hussain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9682-9056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Novellino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9013-4317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Panos","family":"Psimoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nottingham Geospatial Institute, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2TU, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1168-6760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart","family":"Marsh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nottingham Geospatial Institute, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2TU, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6641","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-24630-6","article-title":"The state of the world\u2019s beaches","volume":"8","author":"Luijendijk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Zsamboky, M., Fern\u00e1ndez\u2013Bilbao, A., Smith, D., Knight, J., and Allan, J. (2011). Impacts of Climate Change on Disadvantaged UK Coastal Communities, Joseph Rowntree Foundation."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Nordstrom, K.F., Psuty, N., and Carter, B. (1990). Coastal Dunes: Form and Process, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-3839(86)90009-8","article-title":"Probabilistic design of dunes; An example from the Netherlands","volume":"9","year":"1986","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Van der Meulen, F., and Van der Maarel, E. (1989). Coastal defence alternatives and nature development perspectives. Perspectives in Coastal Dune Management, Proceedings of the European Symposium, Leiden, The Netherlands, 7\u201311 September 1987, SPB Academic Publishing."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Pye, K., Saye, S., and Blott, S. (2007). Sand Dune Processes and Management for Flood and Coastal Defence Part 1: Project Overview and Recommendations, Joint Defra\/EA Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management R&D Programme."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pye, K., and Tsoar, H. (2008). Aeolian Sand and Sand Dunes, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-85910-9"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1007\/s11852-009-0068-5","article-title":"Changes in landscape and vegetation of coastal dunes in northwest Europe: A review","volume":"15","author":"Provoost","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Coast. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-2716(99)00011-8","article-title":"Airborne laser scanning\u2014An introduction and overview","volume":"54","author":"Wehr","year":"1999","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyypp\u00e4, J., Wagner, W., Hollaus, M., and Hyypp\u00e4, H. (2009). Airborne Laser Scanning. The SAGE Handbook of Remote Sensing, Sage Publications.","DOI":"10.4135\/9780857021052.n14"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-010-9634-2","article-title":"Use of LIDAR in landslide investigations: A review","volume":"61","author":"Jaboyedoff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Gallay, M. (2013). Direct acquisition of data: Airborne laser scanning. Geomorphological Techniques, British Society for Geomorphology."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"2014","article-title":"Forestry applications of airborne laser scanning. Concepts and case studies","volume":"27","author":"Maltamo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Manag. For. Ecosyst."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.earscirev.2019.102929","article-title":"Airborne lidar change detection: An overview of Earth sciences applications","volume":"198","author":"Okyay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-555X(02)00185-X","article-title":"Spatial characterization, resolution, and volumetric change of coastal dunes using airborne LIDAR: Cape Hatteras, North Carolina","volume":"48","author":"Woolard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Meridith, A.W., Eslinger, D.L., and Aurin, D. (1999). An Evaluation of Hurricane\u2013Induced Erosion along the North Carolina Coast Using Airborne LIDAR Surveys."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"502","article-title":"Estimation of shoreline position and change using airborne topographic lidar data","volume":"18","author":"Stockdonf","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.2112\/JCOASTRES-D-18-00069.1","article-title":"Beach, Dune, and Nearshore Analysis of Southern Texas Gulf Coast Using Chiroptera LIDAR and Imaging System","volume":"35","author":"Caudle","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2005.05.007","article-title":"Beach\u2013dune morphological relationships and erosion\/accretion: An investigation at five sites in England and Wales using LIDAR data","volume":"72","author":"Saye","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2452","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-12-00174.1","article-title":"Resolution and accuracy of an airborne scanning laser system for beach surveys","volume":"30","author":"Middleton","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gr\u00fcnthal, E., Gruno, A., and Ellmann, A. (2014). Monitoring of coastal processes by using airborne laser scanning data. Environmental Engineering, Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Engineering (ICEE), Vilnius, Lithuania, 22\u201324 May 2014, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Department of Construction Economics.","DOI":"10.3846\/enviro.2014.208"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Julge, K., Eelsalu, M., Gr\u00fcnthal, E., Talvik, S., Ellmann, A., Soomere, T., and T\u00f5nisson, H. (2014, January 27\u201329). Combining airborne and terrestrial laser scanning to monitor coastal processes. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE\/OES Baltic International Symposium (BALTIC), Tallinn, Estonia.","DOI":"10.1109\/BALTIC.2014.6887874"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2017.12.037","article-title":"Coastal monitoring solutions of the geomorphological response of beach\u2013dune systems using multi\u2013temporal LiDAR datasets (Vend\u00e9e coast, France)","volume":"304","author":"Juigner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frati, G., Launeau, P., Robin, M., Giraud, M., Juigner, M., Debaine, F., and Michon, C. (2021). Coastal Sand Dunes Monitoring by Low Vegetation Cover Classification and Digital Elevation Model Improvement Using Synchronized Hyperspectral and Full\u2013Waveform LiDAR Remote Sensing. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13010029"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2011.02.029","article-title":"Quantifying thresholds for significant dune erosion along the Sefton Coast, Northwest England","volume":"143","author":"Esteves","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.2307\/1787693","article-title":"The geomorphology of the south\u2013west Lancashire coast\u2013line","volume":"90","author":"Gresswell","year":"1937","journal-title":"Geogr. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2008.06.011","article-title":"Decadal\u2013scale variation in dune erosion and accretion rates: An investigation of the significance of changing storm tide frequency and magnitude on the Sefton coast, UK","volume":"102","author":"Pye","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2016.05.011","article-title":"Assessment of beach and dune erosion and accretion using LiDAR: Impact of the stormy 2013\u201314 winter and longer term trends on the Sefton Coast, UK","volume":"266","author":"Pye","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-3227(94)90139-2","article-title":"Coastal dune erosion at Formby Point, north Merseyside, England: Causes and mechanisms","volume":"119","author":"Pye","year":"1994","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-15-1533-2015","article-title":"Impacts of storm chronology on the morphological changes of the Formby beach and dune system, UK","volume":"15","author":"Dissanayake","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Lymbery, G., Wisse, P., and Newton, M. (2007). Report on Coastal Erosion Predictions for Formby Point, Formby, Merseyside."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coastaleng.2018.03.005","article-title":"Multi\u2013timescale morphological modelling of a dune\u2013fronted sandy beach","volume":"136","author":"Karunarathna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Coast. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Sefton Metropolitan Borough Council, Flood & Coastal Erosion Risk Management Team (2016). Sefton and West Lancashire Annual Local Monitoring Report 2015."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Trust, N. (2021, August 17). Shifting Shores at Formby. Available online: https:\/\/www.nationaltrust.org.uk\/formby\/features\/shifting-shores-at-formby."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Trust, N. (2021, August 17). Shifting Shores: Playing Our Part at the Coast. Available online: https:\/\/nt.global.ssl.fastly.net\/documents\/shifting-shores-report-2015.pdf."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1023\/B:CLIM.0000024690.32682.48","article-title":"Global warming and coastal erosion","volume":"64","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s11852-013-0294-8","article-title":"Coastal dune stabilization in Wales and requirements for rejuvenation","volume":"18","author":"Pye","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Coast. Conserv."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Environment Agency (2021, August 17). LIDAR Ground Truth Surveys, Available online: https:\/\/environment.data.gov.uk\/dataset\/16b4d492-0c0d-410b-9732-65eebcc3d9f9."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Environment Agency, Geomatics (2021, November 16). LiDAR Accuracy & Resolution, Available online: https:\/\/experience.arcgis.com\/experience\/753ad2ebd3554fa696885b8c366c3049\/page\/page_16\/?views=view_19."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Environment Agency (2021, August 17). National LIDAR Programme, Available online: https:\/\/data.gov.uk\/dataset\/f0db0249-f17b-4036-9e65-309148c97ce4\/national-lidar-programme."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1007\/s11004-013-9508-8","article-title":"Accuracy analysis of digital elevation model relating to spatial resolution and terrain slope by bilinear interpolation","volume":"46","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Math. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Upper Midwest Environmental Sciences Center (2021, August 17). Curve Fit: A Pixel Level Raster Regression Tool, Available online: https:\/\/www.umesc.usgs.gov\/management\/dss\/curve_fit.html."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1007\/s10236-011-0376-9","article-title":"The wave climate of Liverpool Bay\u2014Observations and modelling","volume":"61","author":"Wolf","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ocean Dyn."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/22\/4665\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:32:41Z","timestamp":1760167961000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/22\/4665"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13224665"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13224665","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,19]]}}}