{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T21:36:51Z","timestamp":1772314611244,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,20]],"date-time":"2021-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637366400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41875032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41875032"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Global positioning satellite system (GPS) radio waves that reach the tropical lower troposphere are strongly affected by small-scale water vapor fluctuations. We examine along-the-ray simulations of the impact parameter at every ray integration step using the high-resolution European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ERA5 reanalysis as the input model states. We find that disturbances to the impact parameter arise when ray paths go through the top of the sub-cloud layer, where there is a pronounced reduction with increasing height in the humidity, and wet refractivity has a strong local vertical gradient, creating multipath. Additionally, the horizontal gradients of refractivity cause the impact parameter to vary along the ray. The disturbances to the impact parameter are confined to an area about 250 km horizontally and 4 km vertically from the perigee point. Beyond 250 km from the perigee, the impact parameter remains constant. The vertical gradient of refractivity is largest at the top of the sub-cloud layer, usually between 1.5 and 3.0 km, and becomes negligibly small above 4 km.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13224693","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,21]],"date-time":"2021-11-21T21:00:50Z","timestamp":1637528450000},"page":"4693","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Raytracing Simulated GPS Radio Wave Propagation Paths Experiencing Large Disturbances When Going through the Top of the Sub-Cloud Layer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0557-8106","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengpeng","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint Center of Data Assimilation for Research and Application, Nanjing University of Information and Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"}]},{"given":"Xiaolei","family":"Zou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Joint Center of Data Assimilation for Research and Application, Nanjing University of Information and Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Anthes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO 80307, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1996)077<0019:GSOTAF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"GPS sounding of the atmosphere from low earth orbit: Preliminary results","volume":"77","author":"Ware","year":"1996","journal-title":"Bull. 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