{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,11]],"date-time":"2025-11-11T15:52:25Z","timestamp":1762876345074,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,28]],"date-time":"2021-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1638057600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41774033, 41774032, and 42174017"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41774033, 41774032, and 42174017"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The spatial\u2013temporal distribution of the global gravity wave (GW) potential energy (Ep) at the lower stratosphere of 20\u201335 km is studied using the dry temperature profiles from multi- Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) radio occultation (RO) missions, including CHAMP, COSMIC, GRACE, and METOP-A\/B\/C, during the 14 years from 2007 to 2020, based on which the linear trends of the GW Ep and the responses of GW Ep to solar activity, quasi biennial oscillation (QBO), and El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) are analyzed using the multivariate linear regression (MLR) method. It is found that the signs and the magnitudes of the trends of GW Ep during each month vary at different altitude ranges and over different latitudes. At 25\u201335 km of the middle and high latitudes, GW Ep values generally show significant negative trends in almost all months, and the values of the negative trends become smaller in the regions closer to the poles. The distribution of the deseasonalized trends in the monthly zonal-mean GW Ep demonstrates that the GW activities are generally declining from 2007 to 2020 over the globe. The responses of GW Ep to solar activity are found to be mostly positive at 20\u201335 km over the globe, and the comparison between the distribution pattern of the deseasonalized trends in the GW activities and that of the responses of GWs to solar activity indicates that the sharp decline in solar activity from 2015 to 2017 might contribute to the overall attenuation of gravity wave activity during the 14 years. Significant negative responses of GW Ep to QBO are found at 30\u201335 km over 30\u00b0 S\u201325\u00b0 N, and the negative responses extend to the mid and high latitudes in the southern hemisphere at 20\u201330 km. The responses of GW Ep to QBO change to be significantly positive at 20\u201330 km over 15\u00b0 S\u201315\u00b0 N, which demonstrates that the zonal wind field should be the main factor affecting the GW activities at 20\u201330 km over the tropics. The responses of GW Ep at 20\u201335 km to ENSO are found to be positive over 15\u00b0 S\u201315\u00b0 N, while at 30\u201335 km over 15\u00b0 N\u201330\u00b0 N and at 20\u201335 km near 50\u00b0 N, significant negative responses of GW Ep to ENSO exist.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13234835","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]],"date-time":"2021-12-01T01:45:02Z","timestamp":1638323102000},"page":"4835","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Variations in Stratospheric Gravity Waves Derived from Temperature Observations of Multi-GNSS Radio Occultation Missions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9137-3317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jia","family":"Luo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Geospace Environment and Geodesy, Ministry of Education, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5527-571X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jialiang","family":"Hou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7918-9664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaohua","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center for Geospatial Technology, 129 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430079, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1029\/2001RG000106","article-title":"Gravity wave dynamics and effects in the middle atmosphere","volume":"41","author":"Fritts","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7797","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-15-7797-2015","article-title":"The southern stratospheric gravity wave hot spot: Individual waves and their momentum fluxes measured by COSMIC GPS-RO","volume":"15","author":"Hindley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1987)115<0721:TSSAPE>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The synoptic setting and possible energy sources for mesoscale wave disturbances","volume":"115","author":"Uccellini","year":"1987","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31523","DOI":"10.1029\/98JD02274","article-title":"The effect of varying the source spectrum of a gravity wave parameterization in a middle atmosphere general circulation model","volume":"103","author":"Manzini","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2152","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1999)056<2152:ANSOGW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A numerical study of gravity wave breaking and impacts on turbulence and mean state","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D17301","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006749","article-title":"Signature of an overturning gravity wave in the mesospheric sodium layer: Comparison of a nonlinear photochemical-dynamical model and lidar observations","volume":"111","author":"Xu","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3137\/ao.410105","article-title":"An overview of the past, present and future of gravity-wave drag parametrization for numerical climate and weather prediction models","volume":"41","author":"Kim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Atmos. Ocean"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-10-707-2010","article-title":"Planetary wave activity in the polar lower stratosphere","volume":"10","author":"Alexander","year":"2010","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6231","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JD026604","article-title":"Variations of global gravity waves derived from 14 years of SABER temperature observations","volume":"122","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D12110","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD010026","article-title":"General aspects of a T213L256 middle atmosphere general circulation model","volume":"113","author":"Watanabe","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9106","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL062468","article-title":"Gravity waves simulated by high-resolution Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model","volume":"41","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3771","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-15-0350.1","article-title":"Tropical waves and the quasi-biennial oscillation in a 7-km global climate simulation","volume":"73","author":"Holt","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23429","DOI":"10.1029\/97JD01569","article-title":"Observing Earth\u2019s atmosphere with radio occultation measurements using the Global Positioning System","volume":"102","author":"Kursinski","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D15307","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JD005251","article-title":"Error analysis for GNSS radio occultation data based on ensembles of profiles from end-to-end simulations","volume":"110","author":"Steiner","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D16","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD011068","article-title":"Spatial structures and statistics of atmospheric gravity waves derived using a heuristic vertical cross-section extraction from COSMIC GPS radio occultation data","volume":"114","author":"Horinouchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7257","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JD901005","article-title":"A global morphology of gravity wave activity in the stratosphere revealed by the GPS occultation data (GPS\/MET)","volume":"105","author":"Tsuda","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1610","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2004)061<1610:GASVOS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Global and seasonal variations of stratospheric gravity wave activity deduced from the CHAMP\/GPS satellite","volume":"61","author":"Ratnam","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"171","article-title":"Enhancement of gravity wave activity observed during a major southern hemisphere stratospheric warming by CHAMP\/GPS measurements","volume":"31","author":"Ratnam","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1029\/2008GL033174","article-title":"COSMIC GPS observations of northern hemisphere winter stratospheric gravity waves and comparisons with an atmospheric general circulation model","volume":"35","author":"Alexander","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D24115","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD010039","article-title":"Global distribution of atmospheric waves in the equatorial upper troposphere and lower stratosphere: COSMIC observations of wave mean flow interactions","volume":"113","author":"Alexander","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D21122","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JD013860","article-title":"Global estimates of gravity wave parameters from GPS radio occultation temperature data","volume":"115","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11535","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-11-11535-2011","article-title":"The effects of atmospheric waves on the amounts of polar stratospheric clouds","volume":"11","author":"Kohma","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"2907","article-title":"A new approach to global gravity wave momentum flux determination from GPS radio occultation data","volume":"6","author":"Faber","year":"2013","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.90.12","article-title":"Characteristics of atmospheric gravity waves observed using the MU (Middle and Upper atmosphere) radar and GPS (Global Positioning System) radio occultation","volume":"90","author":"Tsuda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4443","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD024135","article-title":"Stratospheric gravity wave momentum flux from radio occultations","volume":"121","author":"Schmidt","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D00P08","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD015717","article-title":"Trends of mesospheric gravity waves at northern middle latitudes during summer","volume":"116","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2004.01.015","article-title":"Interannual variations of the mean wind and gravity wave variances in the middle atmosphere over Hawaii","volume":"66","author":"Gavrilov","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"285","article-title":"Climatological monthly characteristics of middle atmosphere gravity waves (10 min-10 h) during 1979\u20131993 at Saskatoon","volume":"13","author":"Gavrilov","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6826(02)00055-X","article-title":"Comparative study of interannual changes of the mean winds and gravity wave activity in the middle atmosphere over Japan, Central Europe and Canada","volume":"64","author":"Gavrilov","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2005.12.007","article-title":"Gravity wave climatology and trends in the mesosphere\/lower thermosphere region deduced from low-frequency drift measurements 1984\u20132003 (52.1\u00b0 N, 13.2\u00b0 E)","volume":"68","author":"Jacobi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"D13103","article-title":"Seasonal and interannual variability of gravity wave activity revealed by long-term lidar observations over Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii","volume":"115","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3263","DOI":"10.1029\/2001GL013117","article-title":"Atmosphere sounding by GPS radio occultation: First results from CHAMP","volume":"28","author":"Wickert","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-89-3-313","article-title":"The COSMIC\/FORMOSAT-3 mission: Early results","volume":"89","author":"Anthes","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L13806","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL023109","article-title":"GPS radio occultation with GRACE: Atmospheric profiling utilizing the zero difference technique","volume":"32","author":"Beyerle","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2010.07.028","article-title":"GRAS radio occultation on-board of Metop","volume":"47","author":"Andres","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"902","DOI":"10.1017\/aer.2020.10","article-title":"Metop-C deployment and start of three-satellite operations","volume":"124","author":"Righetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aeronaut. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D18108","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JD011867","article-title":"Gravity wave activity during stratospheric sudden warmings in the 2007\u20132008 Northern Hemisphere winter","volume":"114","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1627","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-4-1627-2011","article-title":"Analysis of vertical wave number spectrum of atmospheric gravity waves in the stratosphere using COSMIC GPS radio occultation data","volume":"4","author":"Tsuda","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D06109","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JD003909","article-title":"CHAMP and SAC-C atmospheric occultation results and intercomparisons","volume":"109","author":"Hajj","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3319\/TAO.2007.12.26.01(F3C)","article-title":"GPS radio occultation: Results from CHAMP, GRACE and FORMOSAT-3\/COSMIC","volume":"20","author":"Wickert","year":"2009","journal-title":"Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2255","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-4-2255-2011","article-title":"Analysis of GPS radio occultation data from the FORMOSAT-3\/COSMIC and Metop\/GRAS missions at CDAAC","volume":"4","author":"Schreiner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4493","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-17-4493-2017","article-title":"Characterization of the longterm radiosonde temperature biases in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere using COSMIC and Metop-A\/GRAS data from 2006 to 2014","volume":"17","author":"Ho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3685","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1993)050<3685:SEOGWE>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Spectral estimates of gravity wave energy and momentum fluxes. Part I: Energy dissipation, acceleration, and constraints","volume":"50","author":"Fritts","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, X., Yu, D., and Luo, J. (2017, January 19\u201321). Seasonal variations of global stratospheric gravity wave activity revealed by COSMIC RO data. Proceedings of the CPGPS 2017 Forum on Cooperative Positioning and Service, Harbin, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/CPGPS.2017.8075102"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6813","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2449338","article-title":"Characteristics of the trends in the global tropopause estimated from cosmic radio occultation data","volume":"53","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote. Sens."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Kutner, M.H., Nachtsheim, C.J., Neter, J., and Li, W. (2004). Applied Linear Statistical Models, Mcgraw-Hill\/Irwin. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1002\/swe.20064","article-title":"The 10.7 cm solar radio flux (F10.7)","volume":"11","author":"Tapping","year":"2013","journal-title":"Space Weather"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1029\/1999RG000073","article-title":"The quasi-biennial oscillation","volume":"39","author":"Baldwin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L15822","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL039343","article-title":"ENSO influence on zonal mean temperature and ozone in the tropical lower stratosphere","volume":"36","author":"Randel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1074","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.2336","article-title":"El Ni\u00f1o\/Southern Oscillation behaviour since 1871 as diagnosed in an extended multivariate ENSO index (MEI.ext)","volume":"31","author":"Wolter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3292","DOI":"10.1002\/grl.50598","article-title":"Influence of El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation in the mesosphere","volume":"40","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D20103","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JD004752","article-title":"Absolute values of gravity wave momentum flux derived from satellite data","volume":"109","author":"Ern","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D04107","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD008938","article-title":"Characteristics of atmospheric gravity wave activity in the polar regions revealed by GPS radio occultation data with CHAMP","volume":"113","author":"Hei","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D17103","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JD011851","article-title":"Gravity wave and orographic wave activity observed around the Antarctic and Arctic stratospheric vortices by the COSMIC GPSRO satellite constellation","volume":"114","author":"Alexander","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D10113","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD011511","article-title":"Global observations of gravity waves from high resolution dynamics limb sounder temperature measurements: A year-long record of temperature amplitude","volume":"115","author":"Yan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JD018658","article-title":"A global view of stratospheric gravity wave hotspots located with Atmospheric Infrared Sounder observations","volume":"118","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-018-5053-1","article-title":"The spatial and temporal variability of global stratospheric gravity waves and their activity during sudden stratospheric warming revealed by COSMIC measurements","volume":"35","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2069","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JAMC2348.1","article-title":"A method to infer the three Cartesian wavelengths of a mountain wave from three soundings","volume":"49","author":"Alexander","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-11-0101.1","article-title":"Gravity wave characteristics in the southern hemisphere revealed by a high-resolution middle-atmosphere general circulation model","volume":"69","author":"Sato","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11431","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD028990","article-title":"Temperature trends and anomalies in modern satellite data: Infrared sounding and GPS radio occultation","volume":"123","author":"Leroy","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"L24809","article-title":"A global analysis of wave potential energy in the lower stratosphere derived from 5 years of GPS radio occultation data with CHAMP","volume":"33","author":"Schmidt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5169","DOI":"10.1029\/90JD02610","article-title":"Gravity waves in the middle atmosphere observed by Rayleigh lidar. Part 2. Climatology","volume":"96","author":"Wilson","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-012-1329-9","article-title":"TIMED\/SABER observations of global gravity wave climatology and their interannual variability from stratosphere to mesosphere lower thermosphere","volume":"39","author":"John","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D21101","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JD017676","article-title":"A global morphology of gravity wave activity in the stratosphere revealed by the 8-year SABER\/TIMED data","volume":"117","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9983","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-16-9983-2016","article-title":"Satellite observations of middle atmosphere gravity wave absolute momentum flux and of its vertical gradient during recent stratospheric warmings","volume":"16","author":"Ern","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5433","DOI":"10.1029\/93JD03454","article-title":"Coherent variations of monthly mean total ozone and lower stratospheric temperature","volume":"99","author":"Randel","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D19107","DOI":"10.1029\/2011JD015821","article-title":"Implications for atmospheric dynamics derived from global observations of gravity wave momentum flux in stratosphere and mesosphere","volume":"116","author":"Ern","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8886","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD024125","article-title":"The QBO, gravity waves forced by tropical convection, and ENSO","volume":"121","author":"Geller","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7622","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD024462","article-title":"Climatology and ENSO-related interannual variability of gravity waves in the Southern Hemisphere subtropical stratosphere revealed by high-resolution AIRS observations","volume":"121","author":"Sato","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/23\/4835\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:37:02Z","timestamp":1760168222000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/23\/4835"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,28]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13234835"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13234835","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,28]]}}}