{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:38:14Z","timestamp":1760236694246,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,20]],"date-time":"2021-12-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639958400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006769","name":"Russian Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21\u201079\u201010375"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21\u201079\u201010375"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006769","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extension of the existing airborne radars\u2019 applicability is a perspective approach to the remote sensing of the environment. Here we investigate the capability of the rotating-beam radar installed over the fuselage for the sea surface wind measurement based on the comparison of the backscatter with the respective geophysical model function (GMF). We also consider the robustness of the proposed approach to the partial shading of the underlying water surface by the aircraft nose, tail, and wings. The wind retrieval algorithms have been developed and evaluated using Monte-Carlo simulations. We find our results promising both for the development of new remote sensing systems as well as the functional enhancement of existing airborne radars.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13245165","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,20]],"date-time":"2021-12-20T08:43:32Z","timestamp":1639989812000},"page":"5165","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Towards the Sea Wind Measurement with the Airborne Scatterometer Having the Rotating-Beam Antenna Mounted over Fuselage"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4378-1145","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexey","family":"Nekrasov","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radio Engineering Systems, Saint Petersburg Electrotechnical University, Professora Popova 5, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia"},{"name":"Institute for Computer Technologies and Information Security, Southern Federal University, Chekhova 2, 347922 Taganrog, Russia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5200-5442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alena","family":"Khachaturian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radio Engineering Systems, Saint Petersburg Electrotechnical University, Professora Popova 5, 197376 Saint Petersburg, Russia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Njoku, E.G. (2014). Encyclopedia of Remote Sensing, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-36699-9"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2015). Active Earth Remote Sensing for Ocean Applications. A Strategy for Active Remote Sensing Amid Increased Demand for Radio Spectrum, The National Academies Press. Available online: https:\/\/www.nap.edu\/read\/21729\/chapter\/5."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Oberthaler, K., and Thompson, A. (2021, November 06). Wind and the Wires: A History of Scatterometry. Available online: https:\/\/cresis.ku.edu\/content\/news\/newsletter\/927."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015832919110","article-title":"Progress in scatterometer application","volume":"58","author":"Liu","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1109\/36.103304","article-title":"A Wind-wave tank study of the azimuthal response of a Ka-band scatterometer","volume":"29","author":"Giovanangeli","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Snoeijl, P., Van Halsema, D., Oost, W.A., Calkoen, C., Jaehne, B., and Vogelzang, J. (1992, January 26\u201329). Microwave backscatter measurements made from the Dutch ocean research tower \u2018Noordwijk\u2019 compared with model predictions. Proceedings of the IGARSS\u201992, Houston, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Wismann, V. (1989, January 10\u201314). Ocean windfield measurements with a rotating antenna airborne C-band scatterometer. Proceedings of the 12th Canadian Symposium on Remote Sensing Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Vancouver, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1109\/5.338074","article-title":"Airborne scatterometers: Investigating ocean backscatter under low-and high-wind conditions","volume":"82","author":"Carswell","year":"1994","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, W.L. (2015, January 26\u201331). Early days of microwave scatterometry: RADSCAT to SASS. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2015.7326754"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, X., Dong, X., and Xie, Y. (2020). On-Board Wind Scatterometry. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12071216"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s11141-016-9695-5","article-title":"Retrieval of the near-surface wind velocity and direction: SCAT-3 orbit-borne scatterometer","volume":"59","author":"Karaev","year":"2016","journal-title":"Radiophys. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"18","article-title":"The NASA scatterometer (NSCAT) mission","volume":"8","author":"Spencer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Backscatter"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.1985.1145093","article-title":"Radar sensing of the ocean","volume":"10","author":"Moore","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1979.11510","article-title":"Radar determination of winds at sea","volume":"67","author":"Moore","year":"1979","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13065","DOI":"10.1029\/JC091iC11p13065","article-title":"Measurement of microwave backscattering signatures of the ocean surface using X band and Ka band airborne scatterometers","volume":"91","author":"Masuko","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2005.851640","article-title":"IWRAP: The Imaging Wind and Rain Airborne Profiler for remote sensing of the ocean and the atmospheric boundary layer within tropical cyclones","volume":"43","author":"Fernandez","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1977.1141533","article-title":"Aircraft measurements of the microwave scattering signature of the ocean","volume":"AP-25","author":"Jones","year":"1977","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1109\/36.135824","article-title":"The polarization-dependent relation between radar backscatter from the ocean surface and surface wind vectors at frequencies between 1 and 18 GHz","volume":"29","author":"Unal","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodr\u00edguez, E., Wineteer, A., Perkovic-Martin, D., G\u00e1l, T., Stiles, B.W., Niamsuwan, N., and Rodriguez Monje, R. (2018). Estimating ocean vector winds and currents using a Ka-band pencil-beam Doppler scatterometer. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201803.0104.v1"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3573","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-3573-2019","article-title":"A generalized simulation capability for rotating-beam scatterometers","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramer, H.J. (2002). Observation of the Earth and Its Environment: Survey of Missions and Sensors, Springer. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-56294-5"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1109\/36.285194","article-title":"Estimation of sea-surface wind using backscatter cross-section measurements from airborne research weather radar","volume":"32","author":"Hildebrand","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1109\/MGRS.2016.2613840","article-title":"Airborne Weather Radar: A theoretical approach for water-surface backscattering and wind measurements","volume":"4","author":"Nekrasov","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Mag."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nekrasov, A., Khachaturian, A., Veremyev, V., and Bogachev, M. (2016). Sea surface wind measurement by airborne weather radar scanning in a wide-size sector. Atmosphere, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos7050072"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1587\/elex.1.137","article-title":"FM-CW millimeter wave demonstrator system as a sensor of the sea surface wind vector","volume":"1","author":"Nekrasov","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEICE Electron."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"163","article-title":"Airborne Doppler navigation system application for measurement of the water surface backscattering signature","volume":"Volume XXXVIII","author":"Wagner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proceedings of the ISPRS TC VII Symposium\u2014100 Years ISPRS"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.17818\/NM\/2016\/4.5","article-title":"Airborne weather radar concept for measuring water surface backscattering signature and sea wind at circular flight","volume":"63","author":"Nekrasov","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nase More"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nekrasov, A., and Popov, D. (2015, January 24\u201326). A concept for measuring the water-surface backscattering signature by airborne weather radar. Proceedings of the 16th International Radar Symposium IRS 2015, Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRS.2015.7226252"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nekrasov, A., Khachaturian, A., Veremyev, V., and Bogachev, M. (2017). Doppler navigation system with a non-stabilized antenna as a sea-surface wind sensor. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17061340"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nekrasov, A., Khachaturian, A., Abramov, E., Popov, D., Markelov, O., Obukhovets, V., Veremyev, V., and Bogachev, M. (2018). Optimization of airborne antenna geometry for ocean surface scatterometric measurements. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10101501"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Nekrassov, A. (July, January 28). Sea surface wind vector measurement by airborne scatterometer having wide-beam antenna in horizontal plane. Proceedings of the IGARSS\u201999, Hamburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2111","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803621","article-title":"On airborne measurement of the sea surface wind vector by a scatterometer (altimeter) with a nadir-looking wide-beam antenna","volume":"40","author":"Nekrassov","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Hans, P. (1987). Auslegung und Analyse von Satellitengetragenen Mikrowellensensorsystemen zur Windfeldmessung (Scatterometer) \u00dcber Dem Meer und Vergleich der Me\u00dfverfahren in Zeit- und Frequenzebene. Von der Fakult\u00e4t 2 Bauingenieur- und Vermessungswesen der Universit\u00e4t Stuttgart zur Erlangung der W\u00fcrde eines Doktor-Ingenieurs Genehmigte Abhandlung, Institut f\u00fcr Navigation der Universit\u00e4t Stuttgart. (In German)."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Komen, G.J., Cavaleri, L., Donelan, M., Hasselmann, K., Hasselmann, S., and Janssen, P.A.E.M. (1994). Dynamics and Modelling of Ocean Waves, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511628955"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"(2021, November 06). CFOSAT. Available online: https:\/\/directory.eoportal.org\/web\/eoportal\/satellite-missions\/c-missions\/cfosat."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2021, November 06). RapidScat Instrument Overview. Available online: https:\/\/spaceflight101.com\/iss\/rapidscat\/."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Nekrasov, A. (2005, January 4\u20137). Measuring the sea surface wind vector by the Doppler navigation system of flying apparatus having the track-stabilized four-beam antenna. Proceedings of the 17th Asia Pacific Microwave Conference (APMC), Suzhou, China."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nekrasov, A., Khachaturian, A., Veremyev, V., and Bogachev, M. (2017). Sea wind measurement by Doppler navigation system with x-configured beams at rectilinear fight. Remote Sens., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17061340"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Long, M.W. (2004). Airborne Early Warning System Concepts, SciTech Publishing Inc.","DOI":"10.1049\/SBRA002E"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Ulaby, F.T., Moore, R.K., and Fung, A.K. (1982). Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive, Volume II: Radar Remote Sensing and Surface Scattering and Emission Theory, Addison-Wesley."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/24\/5165\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:49:48Z","timestamp":1760168988000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/13\/24\/5165"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,20]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12]]}},"alternative-id":["rs13245165"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs13245165","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,20]]}}}