{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T13:43:42Z","timestamp":1790775822954,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]],"date-time":"2021-12-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640131200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Moisture presence in asphalt concrete (AC) pavement is a major cause of damage to the pavement. In recent decades, an increasing need exists for non-destructive detection and monitoring of the moisture content in AC pavement. This paper provides a simulated approach to quantify the effect of internal moisture content on AC pavement dielectric properties using ground-penetrating radar (GPR). A heterogeneous numerical model was developed to simulate AC pavement with internal moisture at various saturation levels. The numerical model was validated using GPR surveys on cold-in-place recycling treated pavements. An empirical formula was derived from the simulation to correlate the dielectric constant with the moisture content for non-dry AC pavement. The results validated the proposed model and, hence, demonstrated the ability of GPR to monitor moisture variation in AC pavements.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14010034","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,23]],"date-time":"2021-12-23T02:02:57Z","timestamp":1640224977000},"page":"34","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Effect of Moisture Content on Calculated Dielectric Properties of Asphalt Concrete Pavements from Ground-Penetrating Radar Measurements"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9306-0306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qingqing","family":"Cao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Illinois Center for Transportation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Rantoul, IL 61866, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5824-103X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Imad L.","family":"Al-Qadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Illinois Center for Transportation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Rantoul, IL 61866, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.1991.817705","article-title":"Effect of moisture on asphaltic concrete at microwave frequencies","volume":"29","author":"Ghodgaonkar","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"0361","article-title":"New Technique to Measure Moisture in Hot-Mix Asphalt Concrete Nondestructively","volume":"1317","author":"Sebaaly","year":"1991","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2012.08.033","article-title":"A review of state of the art on stripping phenomenon in asphalt concrete","volume":"38","author":"Mehrara","year":"2013","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000209","article-title":"Impacts of Curing Time and Moisture Content on Engineering Properties of Cold In-Place Recycling Mixtures Using Foamed or Emulsified Asphalt","volume":"23","author":"Kim","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0899-1561(2006)18:1(116)","article-title":"\u201cDavid\u201d Development of Mix Design Procedure for Cold In-Place Recycling with Foamed Asphalt","volume":"18","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"ASTM D7497-09 (2016). Standard Practice for Recovering Residue from Emulsified Asphalt Using Low-Temperature Evaporative Techniques, ASTM International."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Miao, L., and Yue, J. (2010). Research on Detection to Moisture Content of Flexible Pavement by GPR. Paving Materials and Pavement Analysis, American Society of Civil Engineers.","DOI":"10.1061\/41104(377)53"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"476","article-title":"Measuring Soil Water Content with Ground Penetrating Radar: A Review","volume":"2","author":"Huisman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vadose Zone J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benedetto, A., and Pajewski, L. (2015). Civil Engineering Applications of Ground Penetrating Radar, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-04813-0"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2017.04.002","article-title":"A review of Ground Penetrating Radar application in civil engineering: A 30-year journey from Locating and Testing to Imaging and Diagnosis","volume":"96","author":"Lai","year":"2018","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2011.03.002","article-title":"Development and validation for in situ asphalt mixture density prediction models","volume":"44","author":"Leng","year":"2011","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2007.09.001","article-title":"Automatic detection of multiple pavement layers from GPR data","volume":"41","author":"Lahouar","year":"2008","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2005.06.005","article-title":"Measuring layer thicknesses with GPR\u2013Theory to practice","volume":"19","author":"Lahouar","year":"2005","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000088","article-title":"Data Analysis Techniques for GPR Used for Assessing Railroad Ballast in High Radio-Frequency Environment","volume":"136","author":"Xie","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2020.102296","article-title":"Factors Impacting Monitoring Asphalt Pavement Density by Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"115","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2019.04.008","article-title":"Algorithm development for real-time thin asphalt concrete overlay compaction monitoring using ground-penetrating radar","volume":"104","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1177\/03611981211004585","article-title":"Signal Stability and the Height-Correction Method for Ground-Penetrating Radar In Situ Asphalt Concrete Density Prediction","volume":"2675","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2017.1412520","article-title":"Measurement of soil water content using ground-penetrating radar: A review of current methods","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Digit. Earth"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Tosti, F., and Slob, E.C. (2015, January 12\u201317). Determination, by using GPR, of the volumetric water content in structures, sub-structures, foundations and soil-ongoing activities in working project 2.5 of COST action TU1208. Proceedings of the Geophysical Research Abstracts, 17, EGU General Assembly, Vienna, Austria. EGU2015-15199."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/S0963-8695(01)00009-3","article-title":"Dielectric properties of concrete and their influence on radar testing","volume":"34","author":"Soutsos","year":"2001","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-947X(1999)125:4(347)","article-title":"Measurement of Complex Permittivity of Asphalt Pavement Materials","volume":"125","author":"Shang","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Transp. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1021\/je00058a001","article-title":"Complex permittivity of water as a function of frequency and temperature","volume":"34","author":"Kaatze","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng. Data"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01008897","article-title":"A model for the complex permittivity of water at frequencies below 1 THz","volume":"12","author":"Liebe","year":"1991","journal-title":"Int. J. Infrared Millim. Waves"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2013.04.007","article-title":"Estimation of in-situ density and moisture content in HMA pavements based on GPR trace reflection amplitude using different frequencies","volume":"97","author":"Plati","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2021.122250","article-title":"Review of moisture measurements in civil engineering with ground penetrating radar\u2014Applied methods and signal features","volume":"278","author":"Klewe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1111\/mice.12342","article-title":"A Computer-Aided Model for the Simulation of Railway Ballast by Random Sequential Adsorption Process","volume":"33","author":"Benedetto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Civ. Infrastruct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1538","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2344858","article-title":"Calibration of FDTD Simulation of GPR Signal for Asphalt Pavement Compaction Monitoring","volume":"53","author":"Shangguan","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Q., and Al-Qadi, I. (2021). Development of a Numerical Model to Predict the Dielectric Properties of Heterogeneous Asphalt Concrete. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21082643"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Hu, R., Lu, L., and Wang, S. (2012, January 4\u20138). The Numerical Simulation Study on Ground Penetrating Radar Detection of the Typical Adverse Geological Structure. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, X., Zhu, Z., Lu, G., and Lu, Q. (2009, January 19\u201320). The FDTD Modeling of GPR for Tunnel Inspection. Proceedings of the 2009 International Conference on Information Engineering and Computer Science, Wuhan, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIECS.2009.5366793"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2468597","article-title":"A Realistic FDTD Numerical Modeling Framework of Ground Penetrating Radar for Landmine Detection","volume":"9","author":"Giannakis","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3656","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2016846","article-title":"Effectiveness of 2-D and 2.5-D FDTD Ground-Penetrating Radar Modeling for Bridge-Deck Deterioration Evaluated by 3-D FDTD","volume":"47","author":"Belli","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1080\/10298436.2014.973027","article-title":"Algorithm development for the application of ground-penetrating radar on asphalt pavement compaction monitoring","volume":"17","author":"Shangguan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Pavement Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cma.2017.08.010","article-title":"Elastic properties of particle-reinforced composites containing nonspherical particles of high packing density and interphase: DEM\u2013FEM simulation and micromechanical theory","volume":"326","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2014.05.002","article-title":"An innovative method for measuring pavement dielectric constant using the extended CMP method with two air-coupled GPR systems","volume":"66","author":"Leng","year":"2014","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116703","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.116703","article-title":"A novel heterogeneous model of concrete for numerical modelling of ground penetrating radar","volume":"227","author":"Lachowicz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zadhoush, H., Giannopoulos, A., and Giannakis, I. (2021). Optimising the Complex Refractive Index Model for Estimating the Permittivity of Heterogeneous Concrete Models. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu21-16517"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpc.2016.08.020","article-title":"gprMax: Open source software to simulate electromagnetic wave propagation for Ground Penetrating Radar","volume":"209","author":"Warren","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Phys. Commun."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-5193(80)90358-6","article-title":"Random sequential adsorption","volume":"87","author":"Feder","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Theor. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1109\/8.558651","article-title":"The finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) and the finite-volume time-domain (FVTD) methods in solving Maxwell\u2019s equations","volume":"45","author":"Yee","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2005.06.007","article-title":"Modelling ground penetrating radar by GprMax","volume":"19","author":"Giannopoulos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.06.119","article-title":"Assessment of the density and moisture content of asphalt mixtures of road pavements","volume":"154","author":"Fernandes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.132","article-title":"Volumetric water content estimation of C-30 concrete using GPR","volume":"166","author":"Kaplanvural","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/nsg.12041","article-title":"Field validation of water-pipe leakage detection through spatial and time-lapse analysis of GPR wave velocity","volume":"17","author":"Cheung","year":"2019","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1985.03615995004900010003x","article-title":"Measurement of Soil Water Content using Time-domain Reflectrometry (TDR): A Field Evaluation","volume":"49","author":"Topp","year":"1985","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2432","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2011.2119478","article-title":"Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture Content by GPR Signal Processing in the Frequency Domain","volume":"11","author":"Benedetto","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/1\/34\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:51:17Z","timestamp":1760169077000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/1\/34"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14010034"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14010034","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]]}}}