{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T17:55:34Z","timestamp":1790704534075,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,24]],"date-time":"2021-12-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640304000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000192","name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["54584"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["54584"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000192","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1930451"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1930451"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We hypothesized topographic features alone could be used to locate groundwater discharge, but only where diagnostic topographic signatures could first be identified through the use of limited field observations and geologic data. We built a geodatabase from geologic and topographic data, with the geologic data only covering ~40% of the study area and topographic data derived from airborne LiDAR covering the entire study area. We identified two types of groundwater discharge: shallow hillslope groundwater discharge, commonly manifested as diffuse seeps, and aquifer-outcrop groundwater discharge, commonly manifested as springs. We developed multistep manual procedures that allowed us to accurately predict the locations of both types of groundwater discharge in 93% of cases, though only where geologic data were available. However, field verification suggested that both types of groundwater discharge could be identified by specific combinations of topographic variables alone. We then applied maximum entropy modeling, a machine learning technique, to predict the prevalence of both types of groundwater discharge using six topographic variables: profile curvature range, with a permutation importance of 43.2%, followed by distance to flowlines, elevation, topographic roughness index, flow-weighted slope, and planform curvature, with permutation importance of 20.8%, 18.5%, 15.2%, 1.8%, and 0.5%, respectively. The AUC values for the model were 0.95 for training data and 0.91 for testing data, indicating outstanding model performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14010063","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,27]],"date-time":"2021-12-27T01:06:54Z","timestamp":1640567214000},"page":"63","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Using Remote Sensing and Machine Learning to Locate Groundwater Discharge to Salmon-Bearing Streams"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Mary E.","family":"Gerlach","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kai C.","family":"Rains","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2653-1825","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edgar J.","family":"Guerr\u00f3n-Orejuela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William J.","family":"Kleindl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joni","family":"Downs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shawn M.","family":"Landry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark C.","family":"Rains","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.5937","article-title":"The role of perched aquifers in hydrological connectivity and biogeochemical processes in vernal pool landscapes, Central Valley, California","volume":"20","author":"Rains","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neff, B.P., Rosenberry, D.O., Leibowitz, S.G., Mushet, D.M., Golden, H.E., Rains, M., Brooks, J.R., and Lane, C.R. (2019). A Hydrologic Landscapes Perspective on Groundwater Connectivity of Depressional Wetlands. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12010050"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jglr.2014.03.006","article-title":"Synthesis review on groundwater discharge to surface water in the Great Lakes Basin","volume":"40","author":"Kornelsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Great Lakes Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsd.2021.100556","article-title":"Connectivity of temperate shallow lakes to groundwater in the Pampean Plain, Argentina: A remote sensing and multi-tracer approach","volume":"13","author":"Solana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Groundw. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Winter, T.C., Harvey, J.W., Franke, O.L., and Alley, W.M. (1998). Ground Water and Surface Water: A Single Resource, US Geological Survey. Circular 1139.","DOI":"10.3133\/cir1139"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1007\/s100400050178","article-title":"Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems","volume":"7","author":"Winter","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JC003041","article-title":"Estimates of flushing times, submarine groundwater discharge, and nutrient fluxes to Okatee Estuary, South Carolina","volume":"111","author":"Moore","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-120308-081019","article-title":"The Effect of Submarine Groundwater Discharge on the Ocean","volume":"2","author":"Moore","year":"2010","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, V.P., Singh, P., and Haritashya, U.K. (2011). Base Flow\/Groundwater Flow. Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers, Springer. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-2642-2"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7447","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL082291","article-title":"Stream-Discharge Surges Generated by Groundwater Flow","volume":"46","author":"Devauchelle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2427.2006.01597.x","article-title":"The thermal regime of rivers: A review","volume":"51","author":"Caissie","year":"2006","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1111\/jawr.12235","article-title":"Controls on Temperature in Salmonid-Bearing Headwater Streams in Two Common Hydrogeologic Settings, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska","volume":"51","author":"Callahan","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1139\/A07-001","article-title":"Riparian areas in the Canadian boreal forest and linkages with water quality in streams","volume":"15","author":"Luke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1111\/1752-1688.12508","article-title":"Nitrogen Subsidies from Hillslope Alder Stands to Streamside Wetlands and Headwater Streams, Kenai Peninsula, Alaska","volume":"53","author":"Callahan","year":"2017","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1086\/692944","article-title":"Catchment-scale alder cover controls nitrogen fixation in boreal headwater streams","volume":"36","author":"Hiatt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Freshw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-1085(19990228)13:3<401::AID-HYP746>3.0.CO;2-A","article-title":"Groundwater and Fish\u2014Insights from Northern North America","volume":"13","author":"Power","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dieter, C.A., Maupin, M.A., Caldwell, R.R., Harris, M.A., Ivahnenko, T.I., Lovelace, J.K., Barber, N.L., and Linsey, K.S. (2018). Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2015, US Geological Survey. Circular 1441.","DOI":"10.3133\/cir1441"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Falkenmark, M., and Rockstr\u00f6m, J. (2004). Balancing Water for Humans and Nature: The New Approach in Ecohydrology, Earthscan."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3525","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-018-1865-2","article-title":"Utilizing 2D Electrical Resistivity Tomography and Very Low Frequency Electromagnetics to Investigate the Hydrogeology of Natural Cold Springs Near Virginia City, Southwest Montana","volume":"175","author":"Khalil","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys. PAGEOPH"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2923","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.13776","article-title":"Hydrogeology of desert springs in the Panamint Range, California, USA: Geologic controls on the geochemical kinetics, flowpaths, and mean residence times of springs","volume":"34","author":"Gleason","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.18814\/epiiugs\/2015\/v38i1\/003","article-title":"Determinants of the distribution of springs in the upper part of a flysch ridge in the Bieszczady Mountains in southeastern Poland","volume":"38","author":"Mocior","year":"2015","journal-title":"Episodes"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Howard, J., and Merrifield, M. (2010). Mapping Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems in California. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0011249"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-013-1089-6","article-title":"GIS-based groundwater spring potential assessment and mapping in the Birjand Township, southern Khorasan Province, Iran","volume":"22","author":"Pourtaghi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-26086-6_10","article-title":"Machine Learning Applications in Hydrology","volume":"Volume 240","author":"Levia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Forest-Water Interactions"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020WR028091","DOI":"10.1029\/2020WR028091","article-title":"What Role Does Hydrological Science Play in the Age of Machine Learning?","volume":"57","author":"Nearing","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681023","DOI":"10.3389\/frwa.2021.681023","article-title":"Editorial: Broadening the Use of Machine Learning in Hydrology","volume":"3","author":"Shen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Water"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3878","DOI":"10.1002\/2016WR019933","article-title":"Machine learning algorithms for modeling groundwater level changes in agricultural regions of the U.S","volume":"53","author":"Sahoo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2020.103595","article-title":"Multiscale groundwater level forecasting: Coupling new machine learning approaches with wavelet transforms","volume":"141","author":"Rahman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"1420","article-title":"Modeling the fluctuations of groundwater level by employing ensemble deep learning techniques","volume":"15","author":"Afan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Comput. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2015.10.010","article-title":"Application of GIS-based data driven random forest and maximum entropy models for groundwater potential mapping: A case study at Mehran Region, Iran","volume":"137","author":"Rahmati","year":"2016","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2020.106625","article-title":"Groundwater quality forecasting using machine learning algorithms for irrigation purposes","volume":"245","author":"Taleb","year":"2021","journal-title":"Agric. Water Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shiri, N., Shiri, J., Yaseen, Z.M., Kim, S., Chung, I.-M., Nourani, V., and Zounemat-Kermani, M. (2021). Development of artificial intelligence models for well groundwater quality simulation: Different modeling scenarios. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0251510"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9454","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.0c03617","article-title":"Machine Learning Models of Groundwater Arsenic Spatial Distribution in Bangladesh: Influence of Holocene Sediment Depositional History","volume":"54","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2021.107790","article-title":"Evaluating the predictive power of different machine learning algorithms for groundwater salinity prediction of multi-layer coastal aquifers in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam","volume":"127","author":"Tran","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussein, E.A., Thron, C., Ghaziasgar, M., Bagula, A., and Vaccari, M. (2020). Groundwater Prediction Using Machine-Learning Tools. Algorithms, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/a13110300"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85205-6","article-title":"Groundwater recharge potential zonation using an ensemble of machine learning and bivariate statistical models","volume":"11","author":"Jaafarzadeh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-1688.2001.tb00973.x","article-title":"The concept of hydrologic landscapes","volume":"37","author":"Winter","year":"2001","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S71","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-003-5077-9","article-title":"Delineation and Evaluation of Hydrologic-Landscape Regions in the United States Using Geographic Information System Tools and Multivariate Statistical Analyses","volume":"34","author":"Wolock","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1111\/jawr.12009","article-title":"Oregon Hydrologic Landscapes: A Classification Framework1","volume":"49","author":"Wigington","year":"2012","journal-title":"JAWRA J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Brydsten, L. (2006). Modelling Groundwater Discharge Areas Using Only Digital Elevation Models as Input Data, Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-006-0129-x","article-title":"Remote sensing and GIS for mapping groundwater recharge and discharge areas in salinity prone catchments, southeastern Australia","volume":"15","author":"Tweed","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6584.2005.00090.x","article-title":"Are Water Tables a Subdued Replica of the Topography?","volume":"43","author":"Haitjema","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ground Water"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.5881","article-title":"A framework for broad-scale classification of hydrologic response units on the Boreal Plain: Is topography the last thing to consider?","volume":"19","author":"Devito","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667109493029","article-title":"Groundwater discharge: A common generator of diverse geologic and morphologic phenomena","volume":"16","author":"Toth","year":"1971","journal-title":"Int. Assoc. Sci. Hydrol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.1369","article-title":"Modelling the potential impacts of groundwater hydrology on long-term drainage basin evolution","volume":"31","author":"Huang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landforms"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1029\/91WR02694","article-title":"Gravity-driven groundwater flow and slope failure potential: 1. Elastic Effective-Stress Model","volume":"28","author":"Iverson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1029\/91WR02695","article-title":"Gravity-driven groundwater flow and slope failure potential: 2. Effects of slope morphology, material properties, and hydraulic heterogeneity","volume":"28","author":"Reid","year":"1992","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"UACED (University of Alaska Center for Economic Development) (2021). Kenai Peninsula 2021\u20132026 Comprehensive Economic Development Strategy, Kenai Peninsula Economic Development District."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5751\/ES-11798-260101","article-title":"Linking landscape attributes to salmon and decision-making in the southern Kenai Lowlands, Alaska, USA","volume":"26","author":"Walker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"ADLWD (Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development) (2020). Alaska Population Projections 2019\u20132045."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"HSWCD (Homer Soil and Water Conservation District) (2018). Growing Local Food: A Survey of Commercial Producers on the Southern Kenai Peninsula, Homer Soil and Water Conservation District."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glass, R. (1996). Ground-Water Conditions and Quality in the Western Part of Kenai Peninsula, Southcentral Alaska, US Geological Survey. Open-File Rep. 96-446.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr96466"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baughman, C.A., Loehman, R.A., Magness, D.R., Saperstein, L.B., and Sherriff, R.L. (2020). Four Decades of Land-Cover Change on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska: Detecting Disturbance-Influenced Vegetation Shifts Using Landsat Legacy Data. Land, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/land9100382"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1931","DOI":"10.1139\/x05-129","article-title":"Wetland drying and succession across the Kenai Peninsula Lowlands, south-central Alaska","volume":"35","author":"Klein","year":"2005","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.1139\/X09-121","article-title":"Recent woody invasion of wetlands on the Kenai Peninsula Lowlands, south-central Alaska: A major regime shift after 18 000 years of wet Sphagnum\u2013sedge peat recruitment","volume":"39","author":"Berg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. J. For. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Magness, D.R., and Morton, J.M. (2018). Using climate envelope models to identify potential ecological trajectories on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0208883"},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"USGS (U.S. Geological Survey) (2021, August 30). The National Map U.S. Geological Survey\u2019s (USGS) National Geospatial Program., Available online: https:\/\/www.usgs.gov\/core-science-systems\/national-geospatial-program\/national-map."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karlstrom, T.N. (1964). Quaternary Geology of the Kenai Lowland and Glacial History of the Cook Inlet Region, Alaska, US Geological Survey. Professional Paper 443.","DOI":"10.3133\/pp443"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Wilson, F.H., and Hults, C.P. (2012). Geology of the Prince William Sound and Kenai Peninsula Region, Alaska, US Geological Survey. Scientific Investigations Map 3110."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nelson, G., and Johnson, P. (1981). Ground-Water Reconnaissance of Part of the Lower Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, US Geological Survey. Open-File Rep. 81-905.","DOI":"10.3133\/ofr81905"},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Spencer, E.W. (2017). Geologic Maps: A Practical Guide to Preparation and Interpretation, Waveland Press."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8306.2004.00409.x","article-title":"Development and Comparison of Approaches for Automated Mapping of Stream Channel Networks","volume":"94","author":"Heine","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-005-0311-2","article-title":"Channel and Perennial Flow Initiation in Headwater Streams: Management Implications of Variability in Source-Area Size","volume":"40","author":"Jaeger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2222","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7656","article-title":"Topographic controls on shallow groundwater dynamics: Implications of hydrologic connectivity between hillslopes and riparian zones in a till mantled catchment","volume":"24","author":"Detty","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"23","article-title":"A Terrain Ruggedness Index That Quantifies Topographic Heterogeneity","volume":"5","author":"Riley","year":"1999","journal-title":"Intermt. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2017.10.011","article-title":"Mapping gullies, dunes, lava fields, and landslides via surface roughness","volume":"301","author":"Korzeniowska","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1007\/s13157-011-0260-x","article-title":"Landscape and Wetland Influences on Headwater Stream Chemistry in the Kenai Lowlands, Alaska","volume":"32","author":"Walker","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wetlands"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667909491834","article-title":"A physically based, variable contributing area model of basin hydrology\/Un mod\u00e8le \u00e0 base physique de zone d\u2019appel variable de l\u2019hydrologie du bassin versant","volume":"24","author":"Beven","year":"1979","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-10-101-2006","article-title":"On the calculation of the topographic wetness index: Evaluation of different methods based on field observations","volume":"10","author":"Zinko","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1029\/96WR03137","article-title":"A new method for the determination of flow directions and upslope areas in grid digital elevation models","volume":"33","author":"Tarboton","year":"1997","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.07.026","article-title":"Building a potential wetland restoration indicator for the contiguous United States","volume":"83","author":"Horvath","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6584.2002.tb02540.x","article-title":"Origin of shallow ground water in an alluvial aquifer as determined by isotopic and chemical procedures","volume":"40","author":"Rains","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ground Water"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0906-7590.2008.5203.x","article-title":"Modeling of species distributions with Maxent: New extensions and a comprehensive evaluation","volume":"31","author":"Phillips","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-4642.2010.00725.x","article-title":"A statistical explanation of MaxEnt for ecologists","volume":"17","author":"Elith","year":"2011","journal-title":"Divers. Distrib."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0587.2013.07872.x","article-title":"A practical guide to MaxEnt for modeling species\u2019 distributions: What it does, and why inputs and settings matter","volume":"36","author":"Merow","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecography"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10365","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.5555","article-title":"Collinearity in ecological niche modeling: Confusions and challenges","volume":"9","author":"Feng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1177\/001316446002000104","article-title":"A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales","volume":"20","author":"Cohen","year":"1960","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.2307\/2529786","article-title":"An Application of Hierarchical Kappa-type Statistics in the Assessment of Majority Agreement among Multiple Observers","volume":"33","author":"Landis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1097\/JTO.0b013e3181ec173d","article-title":"Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve in Diagnostic Test Assessment","volume":"5","author":"Mandrekar","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Thorac. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1899\/11-109.1","article-title":"Catchment topography and wetland geomorphology drive macroinvertebrate community structure and juvenile salmonid distributions in south-central Alaska headwater streams","volume":"31","author":"King","year":"2012","journal-title":"Freshw. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2017.1414383","article-title":"Mapping groundwater recharge potential zones in arid region using GIS and Landsat approaches, southeast Tunisia","volume":"63","author":"Souissi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3632","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.3632","article-title":"Maxent-directed field surveys identify new populations of narrowly endemic habitat specialists","volume":"5","author":"Rhoden","year":"2017","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2007.01494.x","article-title":"Climate warming causes phenological shift in Pink Salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, behavior at Auke Creek, Alaska","volume":"14","author":"Taylor","year":"2008","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"coaa084","DOI":"10.1093\/conphys\/coaa084","article-title":"Transcriptomic response to elevated water temperatures in adult migrating Yukon River Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)","volume":"8","author":"Bowen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Conserv. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1899\/10-086.1","article-title":"Breakdown rates, nutrient concentrations, and macroinvertebrate colonization of bluejoint grass litter in headwater streams of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska","volume":"30","author":"Shaftel","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. N. Am. Benthol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Gutsch, M.K. (2011). Dentification and Characterization of Juvenile Coho Salmon Overwintering Habitats and Early Spring Outmigration in the Anchor River Watershed, Alaska, University of Alaska, Fairbanks."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.03.290","article-title":"Watershed influences on the structure and function of riparian wetlands associated with headwater streams\u2014Kenai Peninsula, Alaska","volume":"599","author":"Whigham","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1899\/11-016.1","article-title":"Allochthonous inputs from grass-dominated wetlands support juvenile salmonids in headwater streams: Evidence from stable isotopes of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen","volume":"31","author":"Dekar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Freshw. Sci."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/1\/63\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:52:41Z","timestamp":1760169161000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/1\/63"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,24]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14010063"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14010063","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,24]]}}}