{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T05:59:53Z","timestamp":1785391193751,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":96,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,29]],"date-time":"2021-12-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640736000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000781","name":"European Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["755617"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["755617"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000781","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"SEJIGENT","award":["SEJIGENT\/2021\/001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SEJIGENT\/2021\/001"]}]},{"name":"German Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Energy","award":["50EE1923"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["50EE1923"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Monitoring cropland phenology from optical satellite data remains a challenging task due to the influence of clouds and atmospheric artifacts. Therefore, measures need to be taken to overcome these challenges and gain better knowledge of crop dynamics. The arrival of cloud computing platforms such as Google Earth Engine (GEE) has enabled us to propose a Sentinel-2 (S2) phenology end-to-end processing chain. To achieve this, the following pipeline was implemented: (1) the building of hybrid Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) retrieval models of crop traits optimized with active learning, (2) implementation of these models on GEE (3) generation of spatiotemporally continuous maps and time series of these crop traits with the use of gap-filling through GPR fitting, and finally, (4) calculation of land surface phenology (LSP) metrics such as the start of season (SOS) or end of season (EOS). Overall, from good to high performance was achieved, in particular for the estimation of canopy-level traits such as leaf area index (LAI) and canopy chlorophyll content, with normalized root mean square errors (NRMSE) of 9% and 10%, respectively. By means of the GPR gap-filling time series of S2, entire tiles were reconstructed, and resulting maps were demonstrated over an agricultural area in Castile and Leon, Spain, where crop calendar data were available to assess the validity of LSP metrics derived from crop traits. In addition, phenology derived from the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was used as reference. NDVI not only proved to be a robust indicator for the calculation of LSP metrics, but also served to demonstrate the good phenology quality of the quantitative trait products. Thanks to the GEE framework, the proposed workflow can be realized anywhere in the world and for any time window, thus representing a shift in the satellite data processing paradigm. We anticipate that the produced LSP metrics can provide meaningful insights into crop seasonal patterns in a changing environment that demands adaptive agricultural production.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14010146","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,29]],"date-time":"2021-12-29T23:31:35Z","timestamp":1640820695000},"page":"146","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Monitoring Cropland Phenology on Google Earth Engine Using Gaussian Process Regression"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5010-0179","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mat\u00edas","family":"Salinero-Delgado","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Image Processing Laboratory (IPL), University of Valencia, C\/Catedr\u00e1tico Jos\u00e9 Beltr\u00e1n 2, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4290-3542","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Est\u00e9vez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Image Processing Laboratory (IPL), University of Valencia, C\/Catedr\u00e1tico Jos\u00e9 Beltr\u00e1n 2, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0759-4422","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Pipia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut Cartogr\u00e0fic i Geol\u00f2gic de Catalunya (ICGC), Parc de Montj\u00fcic, 08038 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3739-6056","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Santiago","family":"Belda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Image Processing Laboratory (IPL), University of Valencia, C\/Catedr\u00e1tico Jos\u00e9 Beltr\u00e1n 2, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0784-7717","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katja","family":"Berger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geography, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen (LMU), Luisenstr. 37, 80333 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7677-1923","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vanessa","family":"Paredes G\u00f3mez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ITACYL, Agrotechnological Institute of Castile and Le\u00f3n, Junta de Castilla y Le\u00f3n, Ctra. de Burgos, km. 119, 47071 Valladolid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6313-2081","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jochem","family":"Verrelst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Image Processing Laboratory (IPL), University of Valencia, C\/Catedr\u00e1tico Jos\u00e9 Beltr\u00e1n 2, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.13168","article-title":"Variability and evolution of global land surface phenology over the past three decades (1982\u20132012)","volume":"22","author":"Garonna","year":"2016","journal-title":"Glob. 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