{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T17:53:56Z","timestamp":1776275636745,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":173,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,21]],"date-time":"2022-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1642723200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Applications of weather radar data to complex orography are manifold, as are the problems. The difficulties start with the choice of suitable locations for the radar sites and their construction, which often involves long transport routes and harsh weather conditions. The next challenge is the 24\/7 operation and maintenance of the remote, unmanned mountain stations, with high demands on the availability and stability of the hardware. The data processing and product generation also require solutions that have been specifically designed and optimised in a mountainous region. The reflection and shielding of the beam by the mountains, in particular, pose great challenges. This review article discusses the main problems and sources of error and presents solutions for the application of weather radar technology in complex orography. The review is focused on operational radars and practical applications, such as nowcasting and the automatic warning of thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, hail, flash floods and debris flows. The presented material is based, to a great extent, on experience collected by the authors in the Swiss Alps. The results show that, in spite of the major difficulties that emerge in mountainous regions, weather radar data have an important value for many practical quantitative applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14030503","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,23]],"date-time":"2022-01-23T20:34:40Z","timestamp":1642970080000},"page":"503","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":67,"title":["Weather Radar in Complex Orography"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8539-7080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Urs","family":"Germann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, 6605 Locarno-Monti, Switzerland"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Boscacci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, 6605 Locarno-Monti, Switzerland"}]},{"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Clementi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, 6605 Locarno-Monti, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8377-181X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Gabella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, 6605 Locarno-Monti, Switzerland"}]},{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Hering","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, 6605 Locarno-Monti, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9112-6343","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maurizio","family":"Sartori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, 6605 Locarno-Monti, Switzerland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7454-7285","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioannis V.","family":"Sideris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, 6605 Locarno-Monti, Switzerland"}]},{"given":"Bertrand","family":"Calpini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Federal Office of Meteorology and Climatology MeteoSwiss, 6605 Locarno-Monti, Switzerland"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Willemse, S., and Furger, M. (2016). Weather radar in Switzerland. From Weather Observations to Atmospheric and Climate Sciences in Switzerland, VDF."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atlas, D. (1990). Precipitation measurement and hydrology. Radar in Meteorology: Battan Memorial and 40th Anniversary Radar Meteorology Conference, Amer. Meteor. Soc.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-935704-15-7"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2612","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1995)034<2612:TAORCT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Application of RadarGauge Comparisons to Operational Precipitation Profile Corrections","volume":"34","author":"Joss","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1256\/qj.05.190","article-title":"Radar precipitation measurement in a mountainous region","volume":"132","author":"Germann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"42","article-title":"Peak performance\u2014Radar design for the prediction in the Swiss Alps","volume":"4","author":"Germann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Meteorol. Technol. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"62","article-title":"Alpine weather radar: Triggering innovation","volume":"4","author":"Germann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Meteorol. Technol. Int."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"88","article-title":"Real-time radar\u2014A new Alpine radar network","volume":"4","author":"Germann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meteorol. Technol. Int."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Kaltenboeck, R. (2012, January 24\u201329). New generation of dual polarized weather radars in Austria. Proceedings of the Seventh European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology, Toulouse, France."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-12-0187.1","article-title":"Using Gap-Filling Radars in Mountainous Regions to Complement a National Radar Network: Improvements in Multiple-Doppler Wind Syntheses","volume":"52","author":"Beck","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1817","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-12-0179.1","article-title":"The New French Operational Polarimetric Radar Rainfall Rate Product","volume":"52","author":"Tabary","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2603","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3366","article-title":"Polarimetric X-band weather radars for quantitative precipitation estimation in mountainous regions","volume":"144","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1997)014<0368:FOUMRF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Feasibility of Using Mountain Return for the Correction of Ground-Based X-Band Weather Radar Data","volume":"14","author":"Delrieu","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1999)016<0405:RMIHTW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Rain Measurement in Hilly Terrain with X-Band Weather Radar Systems: Accuracy of Path-Integrated Attenuation Estimates Derived from Mountain Returns","volume":"16","author":"Delrieu","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3731","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-13-3731-2020","article-title":"Preliminary investigation of the relationship between differential phase shift and path-integrated attenuation at the X band frequency in an Alpine environment","volume":"13","author":"Delrieu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Bechini, R., and Cremonini, R. (2002, January 18\u201322). The weather radar system of north-western Italy: An advanced tool for meteorological surveillance. Proceedings of the Second European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2237","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JD900420","article-title":"Optimizing quantitative precipitation estimates using a non-coherent and a coherent radar operating on the same area","volume":"105","author":"Gabella","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2002)041<1163:IRBEOR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Improving Radar-Based Estimation of Rainfall over Complex Terrain","volume":"41","author":"Dinku","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-6-697-2006","article-title":"Enhanced radar precipitation estimates using a combined clutter and beam blockage correction technique","volume":"6","author":"Fornasiero","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2003)020<1251:OPOAWR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Optimal Planning of a Weather Radar Network","volume":"20","author":"Minciardi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.3390\/w2040838","article-title":"Heavy Rainfall Monitoring by Polarimetric C-Band Weather Radars","volume":"2","author":"Cremonini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-10-05024.1","article-title":"On the Use of Dual-Polarized C-Band Radar for Operational Rainfall Retrieval in Mountainous Areas","volume":"51","author":"Vulpiani","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montopoli, M., Roberto, N., Adirosi, E., Gorgucci, E., and Baldini, L. (2017). Investigation ofWeather Radar Quantitative Precipitation Estimation Methodologies in Complex Orography. Atmosphere, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos8020034"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1993)074<1669:TWATWO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The WSR-88D and the WSR-88D Operational Support Facility","volume":"74","author":"Crum","year":"1993","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1993)074<1293:ADOTIS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Description of the Initial Set of Analysis Products Available from the NEXRAD WSR-88D System","volume":"74","author":"Klazura","year":"1993","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-019-8172-4","article-title":"Current Status and Future Challenges of Weather Radar Polarimetry: Bridging the Gap between Radar Meteorology\/Hydrology\/Engineering and Numerical Weather Prediction","volume":"76","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2289","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1999)080<2289:TLOTWR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Limitations of the WSR-88D Radar Network for Quantitative Precipitation Measurement over the Coastal Western United States","volume":"80","author":"Westrick","year":"1999","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0434(2002)017<0927:WRCOTC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Weather Radar Coverage over the Contiguous United States","volume":"17","author":"Maddox","year":"2002","journal-title":"Wea. Forecast."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1836","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-11-0145.1","article-title":"Radar-Based Quantitative Precipitation Estimation for the Cool Season in Complex Terrain: Case Studies from the NOAA Hydrometeorology Testbed","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeor."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2367","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-19-0136.1","article-title":"A Flexible Bayesian Approach to Bias Correction of Radar-Derived Precipitation Estimates over Complex Terrain: Model Design and Initial Verification","volume":"20","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeor."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2949214","article-title":"Improving Operational Radar Rainfall Estimates Using Profiler Observations Over Complex Terrain in Northern California","volume":"58","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2015.08.063","article-title":"Inter-comparison of radar rainfall rate using Constant Altitude Plan Position Indicator and hybrid surface rainfall maps","volume":"531","author":"Kwon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JTECHA1162.1","article-title":"An Application of Reflectivity Climatology in Constructing Radar Hybrid Scans over Complex Terrain","volume":"26","author":"Chang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-015-4092-0","article-title":"Identification and removal of non-meteorological echoes in dual-polarization radar data based on a fuzzy logic algorithm","volume":"32","author":"Ye","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1175\/2007MWR2129.1","article-title":"Radar Observations of Intense Orographic Precipitation Associated with Typhoon Xangsane (2000)","volume":"136","author":"Yu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mon. Wea. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-11-00151.1","article-title":"An Application of the Immersed Boundary Method for Recovering the Three-Dimensional Wind Fields over Complex Terrain Using Multiple-Doppler Radar Data","volume":"140","author":"Liou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mon. Wea. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3401","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-17-0394.1","article-title":"Impacts of Topography on Airflow and Precipitation in the Pyeongchang Area Seen from Multiple-Doppler Radar Observations","volume":"146","author":"Tsai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mon. Wea. Rev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5789358","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5789358","article-title":"Coverage of China New Generation Weather Radar Network","volume":"2019","author":"Min","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-18-765-2018","article-title":"Radar-based quantitative precipitation estimation for the identification of debris flow occurrence over earthquake-affected regions in Sichuan, China","volume":"18","author":"Shi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2017.12.017","article-title":"Radar-derived quantitative precipitation estimation in complex terrain over the eastern Tibetan Plateau","volume":"203","author":"Gou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gou, Y., Ma, Y., Chen, H., and Yin, J. (2019). Utilization of a C-band Polarimetric Radar for Severe Rainfall Event Analysis in Complex Terrain over Eastern China. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010022"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1017\/S1350482700001559","article-title":"The characterisation of orographic rainfall","volume":"7","author":"Gray","year":"2000","journal-title":"Meteor. Appl."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Talchabhadel, R., Ghimire, G.R., Sharma, S., Dahal, P., Panthi, J., Baniya, R., Pudashine, J., Thapa, B.R., Shakti, P., and Parajuli, B. (Weather, 2021). Weather radar in Nepal: Opportunities and challenges in a mountainous region, Weather, early view.","DOI":"10.1002\/wea.3994"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-15-00178.1","article-title":"RadarNet-Sur First Weather Radar Network in Tropical High Mountains","volume":"98","author":"Bendix","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1732","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2001)058<1732:MOIAR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Mechanisms of Intense Alpine Rainfall","volume":"58","author":"Rotunno","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.67","article-title":"Lessons on orographic precipitation from the Mesoscale Alpine Programme","volume":"133","author":"Rotunno","year":"2007","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1029\/2011RG000365","article-title":"Orographic effects on precipitating clouds","volume":"50","author":"Houze","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2001)040<1042:VORRTD>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Variograms of Radar Reflectivity to Describe the Spatial Continuity of Alpine Precipitation","volume":"40","author":"Germann","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2537","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49712757804","article-title":"Radar observations of precipitation and airflow on the Mediterranean side of the Alps: Autumn 1998 and 1999","volume":"127","author":"Houze","year":"2001","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1256\/qj.02.13","article-title":"Air motions and precipitation growth in alpine storms","volume":"129","author":"Medina","year":"2003","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.544","article-title":"The relation between airflow and orographic precipitation on the southern side of the Alps as revealed by weather radar","volume":"136","author":"Panziera","year":"2010","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2351","article-title":"Mesoscale organization and structure of orographic precipitation producing flash floods in the Lago Maggiore region","volume":"141","author":"Panziera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1590","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2771","article-title":"Spatial and temporal distribution of hailstorms in the Alpine region: A long-term, high resolution, radar-based analysis","volume":"142","author":"Nisi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3286","article-title":"A 15-year hail streak climatology for the Alpine region","volume":"144","author":"Nisi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2277","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3364","article-title":"A 10-year radar-based analysis of orographic precipitation growth and decay patterns over the Swiss Alpine region","volume":"144","author":"Foresti","year":"2018","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3749","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5528","article-title":"A 12-year radar-based climatology of daily and sub-daily extreme precipitation over the Swiss Alps","volume":"38","author":"Panziera","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.878","article-title":"NORA\u2013Nowcasting of Orographic Rainfall by means of Analogues","volume":"137","author":"Panziera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1002\/met.1416","article-title":"Retrieval of analogue radar images for ensemble nowcasting of orographic rainfall","volume":"22","author":"Foresti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Meteor. Appl."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-18-0206.1","article-title":"Using a 10-Year Radar Archive for Nowcasting Precipitation Growth and Decay: A Probabilistic Machine Learning Approach","volume":"34","author":"Foresti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Wea. Forecast."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1768","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3766","article-title":"NowPrecip: Localized precipitation nowcasting in the complex terrain of Switzerland","volume":"146","author":"Sideris","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Council, N.R. (2005). Flash Flood Forecasting over Complex Terrain: With an Assessment of the Sulphur Mountain NEXRAD in Southern California, The National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Westrelin, S., Meriaux, P., Tabary, P., and Aubert, Y. (2012, January 24\u201329). Hydrometeorological risks in Mediterranean mountainous areas\u2014 RHYTMME Project: Risk Management based on a Radar Network. Proceedings of the Seventh European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology, Toulouse, France."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2317","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-2317-2016","article-title":"A radar-based regional extreme rainfall analysis to derive the thresholds for a novel automatic alert system in Switzerland","volume":"20","author":"Panziera","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s00703-007-0260-9","article-title":"Revisiting the latent heat nudging scheme for the rainfall assimilation of a simulated convective storm","volume":"98","author":"Leuenberger","year":"2004","journal-title":"Meteor. Atmos. Phys."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2269","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JD900270","article-title":"On the use of real-time radar rainfall estimates for flood prediction in mountainous basins","volume":"105","author":"Borga","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM433.1","article-title":"Hydrological Validation of a Radar-Based Nowcasting Technique","volume":"6","author":"Berenguer","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeor."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2010.12.005","article-title":"Superposition of three sources of uncertainties in operational flood forecasting chains","volume":"100","author":"Zappa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2010.11.016","article-title":"The COST 731 Action: A review on uncertainty propagation in advanced hydro-meteorological forecast systems","volume":"100","author":"Rossa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.9458","article-title":"Probabilistic evaluation of ensemble discharge nowcasts in two nested Alpine basins prone to flash floods","volume":"27","author":"Liechti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Binder, P. (2021, December 14). MAP\u2014Mesoscale Alpine Programme Design Proposal. NOAA Tech. Rep. ERL402-NHELM2, MeteoSwiss, 1996. Available online: http:\/\/iacweb.ethz.ch\/doc\/publications\/1996_BinderSchar_MAP_DP.pdf."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1175\/2009BAMS2776.1","article-title":"MAP D-PHASE: Real-Time Demonstration of Weather Forecast Quality in the Alpine Region","volume":"90","author":"Rotach","year":"2009","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Savina, M. (2011). The Use of a Cost-Effective X-Band Weather Radar in Alpine Region. [Ph.D. Thesis, ETH Zurich]."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.752","article-title":"The Convective and Orographically-induced Precipitation Study (COPS): The scientific strategy, the field phase, and research highlights","volume":"137","author":"Wulfmeyer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2013","article-title":"Diurnal cycle of precipitation over complex Alpine orography: Inferences from high-resolution radar observations","volume":"139","author":"Mandapaka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1002\/2013JD019880","article-title":"Orographic effects on snow deposition patterns in mountainous terrain","volume":"119","author":"Mott","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2018.03.007","article-title":"A severe hail storm in complex topography in Switzerland\u2014 Observations and processes","volume":"209","author":"Trefalt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5573","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-5573-2019","article-title":"Analysis of the lightning production of convective cells","volume":"12","author":"Pineda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5477","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-21-5477-2021","article-title":"Lagrangian matches between observations from aircraft, lidar and radar in a warm conveyor belt crossing orography","volume":"21","author":"Boettcher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ES51","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-17-0207.1","article-title":"Challenges and Recent Advances in Hail Research","volume":"99","author":"Martius","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5208","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.6514","article-title":"A multi-year assessment of sub-hourly gridded precipitation for Switzerland based on a blended radar\u2014Rain-gauge dataset","volume":"40","author":"Barton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4170","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3897","article-title":"Hailstorms in the Alpine region: Diurnal cycle, 4D-characteristics, and the nowcasting potential of lightning properties","volume":"146","author":"Nisi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-21-683-2021","article-title":"Radar-based assessment of hail frequency in Europe","volume":"21","author":"Fluck","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Museo di valmaggia (2020). Condizioni meteorologiche estreme. L\u2019alluvione del \u201978: Testimonianze e Riflessioni, Armando Dad\u00f2 Editore."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1477-8696.2001.tb06505.x","article-title":"The floods of 13\u201316 October 2000 in Piedmont (Italy): Quantitative precipitation estimates using radar and a network of gauges","volume":"56","author":"Gabella","year":"2001","journal-title":"Weather"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.09.039","article-title":"Radar rainfall estimation for the identification of debris-flow occurrence thresholds","volume":"519","author":"Marra","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-18-0258.1","article-title":"A Reduced-Space Ensemble Kalman Filter Approach for Flow-Dependent Integration of Radar Extrapolation Nowcasts and NWP Precipitation Ensembles","volume":"147","author":"Nerini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mon. Wea. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Nerini, D. (2019). Ensemble Precipitation Nowcasting: Limits to Prediction, Localization and Seamless Blending. [Ph.D. Thesis, ETH Zurich]."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-11-00050.1","article-title":"Can Lagrangian Extrapolation of Radar Fields Be Used for Precipitation Nowcasting over Complex Alpine Orography?","volume":"27","author":"Mandapaka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Wea. Forecast."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4185","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-12-4185-2019","article-title":"Pysteps: An open-source Python library for probabilistic precipitation nowcasting (v1.0)","volume":"12","author":"Pulkkinen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5139","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD900487","article-title":"Accuracy of rainfall estimates by two radars in the same Alpine environment using gauge adjustment","volume":"106","author":"Gabella","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2188","article-title":"Real-time radar\u2013rain-gauge merging using spatio-temporal co-kriging with external drift in the alpine terrain of Switzerland","volume":"140","author":"Sideris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Gabella, M., Panziera, L., Sideris, I., Boscacci, M., Wolfensberger, D., Clementi, L., and Germann, U. (2018, January 5\u20137). Twelve years of operational real-time hourly precipitation estimation in the Alps: Better performance of the radar-only and radar-gauge products in recent years. Proceedings of the 11th International Workshop on Precipitation in Urban Areas, Pontresina, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1002\/met.1843","article-title":"A method for real-time temporal disaggregation of blended radar-rain gauge precipitation fields","volume":"27","author":"Barton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Meteor. Appl."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Hering, A.M., Morel, C., Galli, G., S\u00e9n\u00e9si, S., Ambrosetti, P., and Boscacci, M. (2004, January 6\u201310). Nowcasting thunderstorms in the Alpine region using a radar based adaptive thresholding scheme. Proceedings of the 3th European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology, Gotland, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Hering, A.M., Germann, U., Boscacci, M., and S\u00e9n\u00e9si, S. (July, January 30). Operational nowcasting of thunderstorms in the Alps during MAP D-PHASE. Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology, Helsinki, Finland."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Hering, A.M., Nisi, L., Bruna, G.D., Gaia, M., Nerini, D., Ambrosetti, P., Hamann, U., Trefalt, S., and Germann, U. (2015, January 14\u201318). Fully automated thunderstorm warnings and operational nowcasting at MeteoSwiss. Proceedings of the European Conference on Severe Storms, Wiener Neustadt, Austria."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1673","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2019.2909970","article-title":"Adaptive thunderstorm measurements using C-band and X-band radar data","volume":"16","author":"Grazioli","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Hirschi, E., Hering, A., and Germann, U. (Meteorological Technology International, 2019). Damage limitation\u2014A short-term hail warning system, Meteorological Technology International, pp. 66\u201369."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-18-0090.1","article-title":"Experiences with >50,000 Crowdsourced Hail Reports in Switzerland","volume":"100","author":"Barras","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4425","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-4425-2016","article-title":"Hydrometeor classification through statistical clustering of polarimetric radar measurements: A semi-supervised approach","volume":"9","author":"Besic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4847","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-4847-2018","article-title":"Unraveling hydrometeor mixtures in polarimetric radar measurements","volume":"11","author":"Besic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_101","unstructured":"Germann, U. (1999). Vertical wind profile by Doppler radars. Mesoscale Alpine Programme (MAP) Newsletters, MeteoSwiss."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2001)018<0875:RTROTW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Real-Time Retrieval of the Wind from Aliased Velocities Measured by Doppler Radars","volume":"18","author":"Tabary","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2341","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-20-0054.1","article-title":"R2D2: A Region-Based Recursive Doppler Dealiasing Algorithm for Operational Weather Radar","volume":"37","author":"Feldmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.5194\/wcd-2-1225-2021","article-title":"A Characterisation of Alpine Mesocyclone Occurrence","volume":"2","author":"Feldmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Weather. Clim. Dyn. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"Leuenberger, D. (2005). High-Resolution Radar Rainfall Assimilation: Exploratory Studies with Latent Heat Nudging. [Ph.D. Thesis, ETH Zurich]."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.5334\/jors.330","article-title":"Pyrad: A Real-Time Weather Radar Data Processing Framework Based on Py-ART","volume":"8","author":"Lainer","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Open Res. Softw."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"1","article-title":"Nowcasting thunderstorm hazards using machine learning: The impact of data sources on performance","volume":"2021","author":"Leinonen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3169","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-14-3169-2021","article-title":"RainForest: A random forest algorithm for quantitative precipitation estimation over Switzerland","volume":"14","author":"Wolfensberger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"496","article-title":"Flood nowcasting in the Southern Swiss Alps using radar ensemble","volume":"351","author":"Liechti","year":"2012","journal-title":"IAHS Publ."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabella, M., and Leuenberger, A. (2017). Dual-Polarization Observations of Slowly Varying Solar Emissions from a Mobile X-Band Radar. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17051185"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabella, M., Boscacci, M., Sartori, M., and Germann, U. (2016). Calibration Accuracy of the Dual-Polarization Receivers of the C-Band Swiss Weather Radar Network. Atmosphere, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos7060076"},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"World Meteorological Organization (2021, December 14). Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observations: Volume III\u2014 Observing Systems. Technical Report WMO-No. 8, World Meteorological Organization, 7 bis, avenue de la Paix, CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland. Available online: https:\/\/library.wmo.int."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1995)012<1038:SORMRU>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Simulation of Radar Mountain Returns Using a Digitized Terrain Model","volume":"12","author":"Delrieu","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1485","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1998)015<1485:SOTOIO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Simulation of the Orographic Influence on Weather Radar Using a Geometric-Optics Approach","volume":"15","author":"Gabella","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JTECHA1092.1","article-title":"Influence of Ground Clutter Contamination on Polarimetric Radar Parameters","volume":"26","author":"Friedrich","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1175\/1525-7541(2002)003<0539:HVOWRS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Hydrologic Visibility of Weather Radar Systems Operating in Mountainous Regions: Case Study for the Ard\u00e8che Catchment (France)","volume":"3","author":"Pellarin","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeor."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.98","article-title":"Modelling weather radar beam propagation and topographical blockage at northern high latitudes","volume":"133","author":"Bech","year":"2007","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryzhkov, A.V., and Zrnic, D.S. (2019). Radar Polymetry for Weather Observations, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-05093-1"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1996)013<0454:AORMUS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Advantages of rain measurements using specific differential phase","volume":"13","author":"Zrnic","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1999)016<0837:TIOTOR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Influence of Terrain on Rainfall Estimates from Radar Reflectivity and Specific Propagation Phase Observations","volume":"16","author":"Vivekanandan","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1839","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH2085.1","article-title":"Effects of Radar Beam Shielding on Rainfall Estimation for the Polarimetric C-Band Radar","volume":"24","author":"Friedrich","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"39","article-title":"Emission: A simple new technique to correct rainfall estimates from attenuation due to both radome and heavy rainfall","volume":"351","author":"Thompson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Weather. Radar Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2002)041<0542:MPTERP>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Mesobeta Profiles to Extrapolate Radar Precipitation Measurements above the Alp","volume":"41","author":"Germann","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM2183.1","article-title":"Variability of Drop Size Distributions: Time-Scale Dependence of the Variability and Its Effects on Rain Estimation","volume":"44","author":"Lee","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2943","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-20-0112.1","article-title":"Can Weather Radars Be Used to Estimate Snow Accumulation on Alpine Glaciers? An Evaluation Based on Glaciological Surveys","volume":"21","author":"Gugerli","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeor."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104796","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2019.104796","article-title":"Retrieval of snow precipitation rate from polarimetric X-band radar measurements in Southern Italy Apennine mountains","volume":"236","author":"Capozzi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1127\/metz\/8\/1999\/85","article-title":"Radome attenuation\u2014A serious limiting factor for quantitative radar measurements?","volume":"8","author":"Germann","year":"1999","journal-title":"Meteor. Z."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1590","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JTECHA1056.1","article-title":"Measurements of the Transmission Loss of a Radome at Different Rain Intensities","volume":"25","author":"Kurri","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-12-00148.1","article-title":"In-Place Estimation of Wet Radome Attenuation at X Band","volume":"30","author":"Frasier","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2004)021<0995:RBOSUG>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Radar Beam Occultation Studies Using GIS and DEM Technology: An Example Study of Guam","volume":"21","author":"Kucera","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khanal, A.K., Delrieu, G., Cazenave, F., and Boudevillain, B. (2019). Radar Remote Sensing of Precipitation in High Mountains: Detection and Characterization of Melting Layer in the Grenoble Valley, French Alps. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10120784"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5181","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-11-5181-2018","article-title":"Characterisation of the melting layer variability in an Alpine valley based on polarimetric X-band radar scans","volume":"11","author":"Gabella","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabella, M., Sartori, M., Progin, O., and Germann, U. (2013, January 9\u201313). Acceptance tests and monitoring of the next generation polarimetric weather radar network in Switzerland. Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Electromagnetics in Advanced Applications (ICEAA), Turin, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICEAA.2013.6632311"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1833","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-16-0095.1","article-title":"Maintenance Keeps Radars Running","volume":"98","author":"Saltikoff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1002\/wrcr.20135","article-title":"Seasonal small-scale spatial variability in alpine snowfall and snow accumulation","volume":"49","author":"Mott","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wat. Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_136","first-page":"290","article-title":"X-Band Mini Radar for Observing and Monitoring Rainfall Events","volume":"2","author":"Allegretti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos. Clim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_137","unstructured":"Vollbracht, D., Sartori, M., and Gabella, M. (2014, January 1\u20135). Absolute dual-polarization radar calibration: Temperature dependence and stability with focus on antenna-mounted receivers and Noise Source-generated reference signal. Proceedings of the 8th European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany."},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"Vollbracht, D., Ridene, D., and Gekat, F. (2011, January 8\u201311). Receiver over Elevation (ROEL) Weather Radar System Design and its Advantages. Proceedings of the 12th URSI Commission F Triennial Open Symposium on Wave Propagation and Remote Sensing, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5367","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-5367-2016","article-title":"An integrated approach to monitoring the calibration stability of operational dual-polarization radars","volume":"9","author":"Vaccarono","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-13-1051-2020","article-title":"Monitoring the differential reflectivity and receiver calibration of the German polarimetric weather radar network","volume":"13","author":"Frech","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1419.1","article-title":"Quantitative Precipitation Estimation in the CASA X-band Dual-Polarization Radar Network","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JTECHA1213.1","article-title":"Operational Monitoring of Weather Radar Receiving Chain Using the Sun","volume":"27","author":"Hollemann","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1381.1","article-title":"Operational Monitoring of Radar Differential Reflectivity Using the Sun","volume":"27","author":"Holleman","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos6010050","article-title":"Vertical and horizontal polarization observations of slowly varying solar emissions from operational Swiss weather radars","volume":"6","author":"Gabella","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atmosphere"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabella, M. (2021). On the Spectral and Polarimetric Signatures of a Bright Scatterer before and after Hardware Replacement. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13050919"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2212","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.1934","article-title":"Long-term monitoring of French polarimetric radar data quality and evaluation of several polarimetric quantitative precipitation estimators in ideal conditions for operational implementation at C-band","volume":"138","author":"Boumahmoud","year":"2012","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"i Ventura, J.F., Boscacci, M., Clementi, L., Sideris, I.V., Gabella, M., and Germann, U. (2013, January 16\u201320). Rad4Alp, The new Swiss Doppler Polarimetric Weather Radar Network: Data Quality and First Results. Proceedings of the 36th Conference on Radar Meteorology, Breckenridge, CO, USA."},{"key":"ref_148","unstructured":"Siggia, A.D., and Passarelli, R.E. (2004, January 6\u201310). Gaussian model adaptive processing (GMAP) for improved ground clutter cancellation and moment calculation. Proceedings of the Third European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology ERAD, Visby, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2571","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-12-00215.1","article-title":"Gaussian Model Adaptive Processing in Time Domain (GMAP-TD) for Weather Radars","volume":"30","author":"Nguyen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_150","first-page":"1353","article-title":"Using a Regression Ground Clutter Filter to Improve Weather Radar Signal Statistics: Theory and Simulations","volume":"38","author":"Hubbert","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH2035.1","article-title":"A Fuzzy Logic Algorithm for the Separation of Precipitating from Nonprecipitating Echoes Using Polarimetric Radar Observations","volume":"24","author":"Gourley","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH1914.1","article-title":"A Fuzzy Logic Technique for Identifying Nonprecipitating Echoes in Radar Scans","volume":"23","author":"Berenguer","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol."},{"key":"ref_153","unstructured":"Germann, U. (2000). Spatial Continuity of Precipitation, Profiles of Radar Reflectivity and Precipitation Measurements in the Alps. [Ph.D. Thesis, ETH Zurich]."},{"key":"ref_154","unstructured":"Meischner, P. (2004). Operational measurement of precipitation in mountainous terrain. Weather Radar: Principles and Advanced Applications, Springer."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1715","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450-39.10.1715","article-title":"Three Methods to Determine Profiles of Reflectivity from Volumetric Radar Data to Correct Precipitation Estimates","volume":"39","author":"Vignal","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1127\/0941-2948\/2006\/0154","article-title":"Improvements in weather radar rain rate estimates using a method for identifying the vertical profile of reflectivity from volume radar scans","volume":"15","author":"Franco","year":"2006","journal-title":"Meteor. Z."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1029\/2007JD009214","article-title":"Rainfall and sampling uncertainties: A rain gauge perspective","volume":"113","author":"Villarini","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-13-195-2009","article-title":"Evaluation of radar-gauge merging methods for quantitative precipitation estimates","volume":"13","author":"Goudenhoofdt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.05.021","article-title":"Evaluation of two \u201cintegrated\u201d polarimetric Quantitative Precipitation Estimation (QPE) algorithms at C-band","volume":"405","author":"Tabary","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.5194\/asr-18-7-2021","article-title":"Multi-sensor analysis of monthly gridded snow precipitation on alpine glaciers","volume":"18","author":"Gugerli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664648","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2021.664648","article-title":"Continuous Spatio-Temporal High-Resolution Estimtaes of SWE Across the Swiss Alps\u2014A Statistical Two-Step Approach for High-Mountain Topography","volume":"9","author":"Guidicelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabella, M., Speirs, P., Hamann, U., Germann, U., and Berne, A. (2017). Measurement of Precipitation in the Alps Using Dual-Polarization C-Band Ground-Based Radars, the GPM Spaceborne Ku-Band Radar, and Rain Gauges. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9111147"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-16-0085.1","article-title":"A Comparison between the GPM Dual-Frequency Precipitation Radar and Ground-Based Radar Precipitation Rate Estimates in the Swiss Alps and Plateau","volume":"18","author":"Speirs","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeor."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1684","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2249","article-title":"Nowcasting severe convection in the Alpine region: The COALITION approach","volume":"140","author":"Nisi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2859","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(2002)130<2859:SDOTPO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Scale-Dependence of the Predictability of Precipitation from Continental Radar Images. Part I: Description of the Methodology","volume":"130","author":"Germann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mon. Wea. Rev."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(2003)042<0381:ADASSA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Dynamic and Spatial Scaling Approach to Advection Forecasting","volume":"42","author":"Seed","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.1256\/qj.04.100","article-title":"STEPS: A probabilistic precipitation forecasting scheme which merges an extrapolation nowcast with downscaled NWP","volume":"132","author":"Bowler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2008.08.014","article-title":"Estimation of radar-rainfall error spatial correlation","volume":"32","author":"Mandapaka","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ad. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM2253.1","article-title":"Error Statistics of VPR Corrections in Stratiform Precipitation","volume":"44","author":"Bellon","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.375","article-title":"REAL\u2014Ensemble radar precipitation estimation for hydrology in a mountainous region","volume":"135","author":"Germann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Testik, F., and Gebremichael, M. (2010). Radar-Rainfall Error Models and Ensemble Generators. Rainfall: State of Science, American Geophysical Union.","DOI":"10.1029\/GM191"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1986)025<0917:MROGI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Main results of Grossversuch IV","volume":"25","author":"Federer","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03854-z","article-title":"Skilful precipitation nowcasting using deep generative models of radar","volume":"597","author":"Ravuri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/3\/503\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:05:29Z","timestamp":1760133929000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/3\/503"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,21]]},"references-count":173,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14030503"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14030503","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,21]]}}}