{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T16:49:03Z","timestamp":1774370943710,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]],"date-time":"2022-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643760000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32160278"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32160278"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NSFC32001188"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NSFC32001188"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["42067070"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42067070"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the Open Project of State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University","award":["2020-ZZ-14"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020-ZZ-14"]}]},{"name":"the Open Project of State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University","award":["2021-KF-08"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021-KF-08"]}]},{"name":"the Natural Science Foundation of Qinghai Province of China","award":["2021-ZJ-973Q"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021-ZJ-973Q"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Global warming has exerted widespread impacts on the terrestrial ecosystem in the past three decades. Vegetation is an important part of the terrestrial ecosystem, and its net primary productivity (NPP) is an important variable in the exchange of materials and energy in the terrestrial ecosystem. However, the effect of climate variation on the spatial pattern of zonal distribution of NPP has remained unclear over the past two decades. Therefore, we analyzed the spatiotemporal patterns and trends of MODIS NPP and environmental factors (temperature, radiation, and soil moisture) derived from three sets of reanalysis data. The moving window method and digital elevation model (DEM) were used to explore their changes along elevation gradients. Finally, we explored the effect of environmental factors on the changes in NPP and its elevation distribution patterns. Results showed that nearly 60% of the global area exhibited an increase in NPP with increasing elevation. Soil moisture has the largest uncertainty either in the spatial pattern or inter-annual variation, while temperature has the smallest uncertainty among the three environmental factors. The uncertainty of environmental factors is also reflected in its impact on the elevation distribution of NPP, and temperature is still the main dominating environmental factor. Our research results imply that the carbon sequestration capability of vegetation is becoming increasingly prominent in high-elevation regions. However, the quantitative evaluation of its carbon sink (source) functions needs further research under global warming.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14030713","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,6]],"date-time":"2022-02-06T20:38:40Z","timestamp":1644179920000},"page":"713","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Effects of Environmental Factors on the Changes in MODIS NPP along DEM in Global Terrestrial Ecosystems over the Last Two Decades"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Zhaoqi","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining 810016, China"}]},{"given":"Hong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining 810016, China"}]},{"given":"Tongfang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining 810016, China"}]},{"given":"Lina","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining 810016, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0127-5757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaotao","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Restoration Ecology for Cold Regions Laboratory in Qinghai, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Adaptation and Evolution of Plateau Biota, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, China"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining 810016, China"}]},{"given":"Xiang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining 810016, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-019-0630-6","article-title":"Increasing impacts of extreme droughts on vegetation productivity under climate change","volume":"9","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"102953","article-title":"A review of environmental droughts: Increased risk under global warming?","volume":"201","author":"Quiring","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1038\/nature23878","article-title":"Impact of a global temperature rise of 1.5 degrees Celsius on Asia\u2019s glaciers","volume":"549","author":"Kraaijenbrink","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2597","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1500515113","article-title":"Future sea level rise constrained by observations and long-term commitment","volume":"113","author":"Mengel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0776-9","article-title":"Increased variability of eastern Pacific El Ni\u00f1o under greenhouse warming","volume":"564","author":"Cai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3351","article-title":"Continued increase of extreme El Ni\u00f1o frequency long after 1.5 \u00b0C warming stabilization","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL075808","article-title":"The accelerating land carbon sink of the 2000s may not be driven predominantly by the warming hiatus","volume":"45","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1038\/s41561-019-0436-1","article-title":"Field-experiment constraints on the enhancement of the terrestrial carbon sink by CO2 fertilization","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2013\u2014The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1126\/science.283.5399.229","article-title":"Grassland vegetation changes and nocturnal global warming","volume":"283","author":"Alward","year":"1999","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2486.1999.00009.x","article-title":"Comparing global models of terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP): Overview and key results","volume":"5","author":"Cramer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoinf.2016.03.006","article-title":"Quantitative assess the driving forces on the grassland degradation in the Qinghai\u2013Tibet Plateau, in China","volume":"33","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Inf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1837","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-020-05563-1","article-title":"Decadal change and inter-annual variability of net primary productivity on the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"56","author":"Cuo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106505","article-title":"Spatiotemporal dynamics of bamboo forest net primary productivity with climate variations in Southeast China","volume":"116","author":"Mao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134304","article-title":"Impact of human activities and climate change on the grassland dynamics under different regime policies in the Mongolian Plateau","volume":"698","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2490","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.3623","article-title":"Recent responses of grassland net primary productivity to climatic and anthropogenic factors in Kyrgyzstan","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2016.12.014","article-title":"Simulation of terrestrial carbon equilibrium state by using a detachable carbon cycle scheme","volume":"75","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2019.03.008","article-title":"Estimating of terrestrial carbon storage and its internal carbon exchange under equilibrium state","volume":"401","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1093\/jpe\/rtz024","article-title":"Changes in productivity and carbon storage of grasslands in China under future global warming scenarios of 1.5 \u00b0C and 2 \u00b0C","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Plant Ecol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"707","article-title":"Primary productivity and ecosystem development along an elevational gradient on Mauna Loa, Hawaii","volume":"78","author":"Raich","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-021-04860-8","article-title":"Climate implications on forest above- and belowground carbon allocation patterns along a tropical elevation gradient on Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania)","volume":"195","author":"Leuschner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1466-822X.2004.00094.x","article-title":"Leaf area index and net primary productivity along subtropical to alpine gradients in the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"13","author":"Luo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3176","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2010.02235.x","article-title":"Net primary productivity allocation and cycling of carbon along a tropical forest elevational transect in the Peruvian Andes","volume":"16","author":"Girardin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1111\/grs.12019","article-title":"Evaluation of six methods to predict grassland net primary productivity along an altitudinal gradient in the Alxa Rangeland, Western Inner Mongolia, China","volume":"59","author":"Lin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Grassl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-012-0419-3","article-title":"Climate change in mountains: A review of elevation-dependent warming and its possible causes","volume":"114","author":"Rangwala","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10548","article-title":"Changes in plant community composition lag behind climate warming in lowland forests","volume":"479","author":"Bertrand","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-009-9733-9","article-title":"The altitudinal dependence of recent rapid warming over the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"97","author":"Qin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clim. Change"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2563","article-title":"Elevation-dependent warming in mountain regions of the world","volume":"5","author":"Pepin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2970","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11035-w","article-title":"Divergent changes in the elevational gradient of vegetation activities over the last 30 years","volume":"10","author":"Gao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1858","article-title":"Shifts in Arctic vegetation and associated feedbacks under climate change","volume":"3","author":"Pearson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2014.01.003","article-title":"Increasing altitudinal gradient of spring vegetation phenology during the last decade on the Qinghai\u2013Tibetan Plateau","volume":"189","author":"Shen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Liu, X., Wang, H., Zheng, K., Li, H., Wang, G., and An, Z. (2021). Monitoring vegetation greenness in response to climate variation along the elevation gradient in the three-river source region of China. ISPRS Int. J. Geo. Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10030193"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Cui, G., Liu, X., Zheng, K., Lu, Z., Li, H., Wang, G., and An, Z. (2021). Greening of the Qinghai\u2013Tibet plateau and its response to climate variations along elevation gradients. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13183712"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Running, S.W., and Zhao, M. (2021, December 14). MODIS\/Terra Net Primary Production Gap-Filled Yearly L4 Global 500 m Sin Grid V061, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/products\/mod17a3hgfv006\/."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1080\/01490410903297766","article-title":"Global bathymetry and elevation data at 30 arc seconds resolution: SRTM30_PLUS","volume":"32","author":"Becker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mar. Geod."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RG2004","DOI":"10.1029\/2005RG000183","article-title":"The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission","volume":"45","author":"Farr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/S0098-3004(99)00025-4","article-title":"Segmentation of physiographic features from the global digital elevation model\/GTOPO30","volume":"25","author":"Miliaresis","year":"1999","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.04.043","article-title":"Evaluation of TanDEM-X DEMs on selected Brazilian sites: Comparison with SRTM, ASTER GDEM and ALOS AW3D30","volume":"212","author":"Grohmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.17265\/2159-581X\/2018.01.002","article-title":"Comparison of SRTM-V4. 1 and ASTER-V2. 1 for accurate topographic attributes and hydrologic indices extraction in flooded areas","volume":"8","author":"Bannari","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Earth Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, H., Zeng, Q., and Jiao, J. (2021). Quality assessment of TanDEM-X DEMs, SRTM and ASTER GDEM on selected Chinese sites. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13071304"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4349","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-13-4349-2021","article-title":"ERA5-Land: A state-of-the-art global reanalysis dataset for land applications","volume":"13","author":"Dutra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5419","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0758.1","article-title":"The Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2)","volume":"30","author":"Gelaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-83-11-1631","article-title":"NCEP-DOE AMIP-II reanalysis (R-2)","volume":"83","author":"Kanamitsu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2016.03.049","article-title":"Drought-induced dynamics of carbon and water use efficiency of global grasslands from 2000 to 2011","volume":"67","author":"Gang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.03.223","article-title":"Vegetation dynamics and its driving forces from climate change and human activities in the Three-River Source Region, China from 1982 to 2012","volume":"563","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, J., Yan, F., and Lu, Q. (2020). Spatiotemporal variation of vegetation on the Qinghai\u2013Tibet plateau and the influence of climatic factors and human activities on vegetation trend (2000\u20132019). Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12193150"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1002\/rog.20009","article-title":"Global atmospheric downward longwave radiation at the surface from ground-based observations, satellite retrievals, and reanalyses","volume":"51","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114583","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geoderma.2020.114583","article-title":"Evaluation of reanalysis soil temperature and soil moisture products in permafrost regions on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau","volume":"377","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geoderma"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1002\/jame.20026","article-title":"A China data set of soil properties for land surface modeling","volume":"5","author":"Shangguan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Adv. Modeling Earth Syst."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2020.104608","article-title":"Evaluation of 11 soil thermal conductivity schemes for the permafrost region of the central Qinghai-Tibet Plateau","volume":"193","author":"Du","year":"2020","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.01.043","article-title":"Influence of land use on soil moisture spatial\u2013temporal variability and monitoring","volume":"516","author":"Zucco","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hyd."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.catena.2021.105770","article-title":"Relationship between net primary productivity and soil water content in the Shule River Basin","volume":"208","author":"Yue","year":"2022","journal-title":"Catena"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4637","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2018.2863957","article-title":"Climate control on net primary productivity in the complicated mountainous area: A case study of Yunnan, China","volume":"11","author":"Guan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2087","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.3587","article-title":"Elevational differences in the net primary productivity response to climate constraints in a dryland mountain ecosystem of northwestern China","volume":"31","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03325-5","article-title":"Soil moisture\u2013atmosphere feedback dominates land carbon uptake variability","volume":"592","author":"Humphrey","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0848-x","article-title":"Large influence of soil moisture on long-term terrestrial carbon uptake","volume":"565","author":"Green","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1430","DOI":"10.1111\/nph.15123","article-title":"Quantifying soil moisture impacts on light use efficiency across biomes","volume":"218","author":"Stocker","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Phytol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/3\/713\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:13:18Z","timestamp":1760134398000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/3\/713"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14030713"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14030713","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]]}}}