{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T06:55:56Z","timestamp":1768287356293,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]],"date-time":"2022-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>GNSS meteorology is today one of the most growing technologies to monitor severe weather events. In this paper, we present the usage of 160 GPS reference stations over the period of 14 days to monitor and track Hurricane Harvey, which struck Texas in August 2017. We estimate the Zenith Wet Delay (ZWD) and the tropospheric gradients with 30 s interval using TOMION v2 software and carry out the processing in Precise Point Positioning (PPP) mode. We study the relationship of these parameters with atmospheric variables extracted from Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite mission and climate reanalysis model ERA5. This research finds that the ZWD shows patterns related to the rainfall rate and to the location of the hurricane. We also find that the tropospheric gradients are correlated with water vapor gradients before and after the hurricane, and with the wind and the pressure gradients only after the hurricane. This study also shows a new finding regarding the spectral distribution of the gradients, with a clear diurnal period present, which is also found on the ZWD itself. This kind of study approaches the GNSS meteorology to the increasing requirements of meteorologist in terms of monitoring severe weather events.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14040888","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,13]],"date-time":"2022-02-13T20:34:45Z","timestamp":1644784485000},"page":"888","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Comprehensive Study on the Tropospheric Wet Delay and Horizontal Gradients during a Severe Weather Event"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6903-5891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Victoria","family":"Graffigna","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Astron\u00f3micas y Geof\u00edsicas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata 1900, Argentina"},{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (CONICET), La Plata 1900, Argentina"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9687-5850","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IonSAT, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}]},{"given":"Francisco","family":"Azpilicueta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Astron\u00f3micas y Geof\u00edsicas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata 1900, Argentina"},{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (CONICET), La Plata 1900, Argentina"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2600-4969","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mauricio","family":"Gende","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Astron\u00f3micas y Geof\u00edsicas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata 1900, Argentina"},{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (CONICET), La Plata 1900, Argentina"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15787","DOI":"10.1029\/92JD01517","article-title":"GPS meteorology: Remote sensing of atmospheric water vapor using the Global Positioning System","volume":"97","author":"Bevis","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6826(00)00248-0","article-title":"First experience with near real-time water vapor estimation in a German GPS network","volume":"63","author":"Dick","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/S1464-1895(01)00075-8","article-title":"Near real-time water vapor estimation in a German GPS network-first results from the ground program of the HGF GASP project","volume":"26","author":"Gendt","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Part A Solid Earth Geod."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105082","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jastp.2019.105082","article-title":"Analysis of GNSS sensed precipitable water vapour and tropospheric gradients during the derecho event in Poland of 11th August 2017","volume":"193","author":"Nykiel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ejigu, Y.G., Teferle, F.N., Klos, A., Bogusz, J., and Hunegnaw, A. (2020). Tracking Hurricanes Using GPS Atmospheric Precipitable Water Vapor Field. International Association of Geodesy Symposia, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/1345_2020_100"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2989","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-2989-2016","article-title":"Benchmark campaign and case study episode in central Europe for development and assessment of advanced GNSS tropospheric models and products","volume":"9","author":"Dousa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5385","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-9-5385-2016","article-title":"Review of the state of the art and future prospects of the ground-based GNSS meteorology in Europe","volume":"9","author":"Guerova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.785","article-title":"On the relationship between water vapour field evolution and the life cycle of precipitation systems","volume":"137","author":"Reverdy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1127\/0941-2948\/2012\/0347","article-title":"An observational study of air and water vapour convergence over the Bernese Alps, Switzerland, during summertime and the development of isolated thunderstorms","volume":"21","author":"Graham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Meteorol. Z."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2445","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL900585","article-title":"Sensing atmospheric structure using small-scale space geodetic networks","volume":"26","author":"Elosegui","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1839","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2406313","article-title":"Capturing the signature of severe weather events in Australia using GPS measurements","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riccardi, U., Tammaro, U., and Capuano, P. (2021). Tropospheric Delay in the Neapolitan and Vesuvius Areas (Italy) by Means of a Dense GPS Array: A Contribution for Weather Forecasting and Climate Monitoring. Atmosphere, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12091225"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj.2013-103","article-title":"Retrieval of water vapor inhomogeneity using the Japanese nationwide GPS array and its potential for prediction of convective precipitation","volume":"91","author":"Shoji","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3805","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-3805-2019","article-title":"On the information content in linear horizontal delay gradients estimated from space geodesy observations","volume":"12","author":"Elgered","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1348","DOI":"10.1029\/2018EA000527","article-title":"Interpretation of the tropospheric gradients estimated with GPS during hurricane Harvey","volume":"6","author":"Graffigna","year":"2019","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5593","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-14-5593-2021","article-title":"High temporal resolution wet delay gradients estimated from multi-GNSS and microwave radiometer observations","volume":"14","author":"Ning","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20489","DOI":"10.1029\/97JB01739","article-title":"Effects of atmospheric azimuthal asymmetry on the analysis of space geodetic data","volume":"102","author":"Chen","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5019","DOI":"10.1029\/97JB03534","article-title":"Estimating horizontal gradients of tropospheric path delay with a single GPS receiver","volume":"103","author":"Kroger","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj.2004.331","article-title":"Tropospheric gradient estimation at CODE: Results from global solutions","volume":"82","author":"Meindl","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1","article-title":"Sensitivity of GNSS tropospheric gradients to processing options","volume":"2018","author":"Zus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys. Discuss."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ionospheric tomographic common clock model of undifferenced uncombined GNSS measurements","volume":"95","author":"Lyu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM560.1","article-title":"The TRMM multisatellite precipitation analysis (TMPA): Quasi-global, multiyear, combined-sensor precipitation estimates at fine scales","volume":"8","author":"Huffman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Graffigna, V. (2017). Validation of Real-Time Zenith Tropospheric Delay Estimation with TOMION Software within WAGNSS Networks. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya]."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5005","DOI":"10.1029\/96JB03860","article-title":"Precise point positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data from large networks","volume":"102","author":"Zumberge","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Dach, R., Schaer, S., Arnold, D., Orliac, E., Prange, L., Susnik, A., Villiger, A., and J\u00e4ggi, A. (2021, December 21). CODE Final Product Series for the IGS. Available online: https:\/\/boris.unibe.ch\/75876\/1\/AIUB_AFTP.TXT."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"247","article-title":"Atmospheric correction for the troposphere and stratosphere in radio ranging satellites","volume":"15","author":"Saastamoinen","year":"1972","journal-title":"Use Artif. Satell. Geod."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1029\/RS022i003p00379","article-title":"Estimation of tropospheric delay for microwaves from surface weather data","volume":"22","author":"Askne","year":"1987","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"277","article-title":"Vienna mapping functions in VLBI analyses","volume":"31","author":"Schuh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau2477","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aau2477","article-title":"Tracking the weight of Hurricane Harvey\u2019s stormwater using GPS data","volume":"4","author":"Milliner","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4315","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JB000113","article-title":"An impact of estimating tropospheric delay gradients on precise positioning in the summer using the Japanese nationwide GPS array","volume":"108","author":"Miyazaki","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-008-0264-3","article-title":"Characterization of diurnal cycles in ZTD from a decade of global GPS observations","volume":"83","author":"Jin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1029\/2018EO104623","article-title":"Harnessing the GPS data explosion for interdisciplinary science","volume":"99","author":"Blewitt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eos"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tu, M., Zhang, W., Bai, J., Wu, D., Liang, H., and Lou, Y. (2021). Spatio-Temporal Variations of Precipitable Water Vapor and Horizontal Tropospheric Gradients from GPS during Typhoon Lekima. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13204082"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2020.00182","article-title":"GNSS Meteorology for Disastrous Rainfalls in 2017\u20132019 Summer in SW Japan: A New Approach Utilizing Atmospheric Delay Gradients","volume":"8","author":"Arief","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zus, F., Dou\u0161a, J., Ka\u010dma\u0159\u00edk, M., V\u00e1clavovic, P., Dick, G., and Wickert, J. (2019). Estimating the Impact of Global Navigation Satellite System Horizontal Delay Gradients in Variational Data Assimilation. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010041"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Press, W.H., Teukolsky, S.A., Flannery, B.P., and Vetterling, W.T. (1992). Numerical Recipes in Fortran 77: Volume 1 of Fortran Numerical Recipes: The Art of Scientific Computing, Cambridge University Press."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/4\/888\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:18:27Z","timestamp":1760134707000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/4\/888"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14040888"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14040888","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,12]]}}}