{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,8]],"date-time":"2026-07-08T17:52:12Z","timestamp":1783533132522,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]],"date-time":"2022-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645747200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009888","name":"Regione Toscana","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["12927\/2018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["12927\/2018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009888","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In precision viticulture, the intra-field spatial variability characterization is a crucial step to efficiently use natural resources by lowering the environmental impact. In recent years, technologies such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Mobile Laser Scanners (MLS), multispectral sensors, Mobile Apps (MA) and Structure from Motion (SfM) techniques enabled the possibility to characterize this variability with low efforts. The study aims to evaluate, compare and cross-validate the potentiality and the limits of several tools (UAV, MA, MLS) to assess the vine canopy size parameters (thickness, height, volume) by processing 3D point clouds. Three trials were carried out to test the different tools in a vineyard located in the Chianti Classico area (Tuscany, Italy). Each test was made of a UAV flight, an MLS scanning over the vineyard and a MA acquisition over 48 geo-referenced vines. The Leaf Area Index (LAI) were also assessed and taken as reference value. The results showed that the analyzed tools were able to correctly discriminate between zones with different canopy size characteristics. In particular, the R2 between the canopy volumes acquired with the different tools was higher than 0.7, being the highest value of R2 = 0.78 with a RMSE = 0.057 m3 for the UAV vs. MLS comparison. The highest correlations were found between the height data, being the highest value of R2 = 0.86 with a RMSE = 0.105 m for the MA vs. MLS comparison. For the thickness data, the correlations were weaker, being the lowest value of R2 = 0.48 with a RMSE = 0.052 m for the UAV vs. MLS comparison. The correlation between the LAI and the canopy volumes was moderately strong for all the tools with the highest value of R2 = 0.74 for the LAI vs. V_MLS data and the lowest value of R2 = 0.69 for the LAI vs. V_UAV data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14051145","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,27]],"date-time":"2022-02-27T20:48:33Z","timestamp":1645994913000},"page":"1145","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":52,"title":["Comparison of Aerial and Ground 3D Point Clouds for Canopy Size Assessment in Precision Viticulture"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0455-7426","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Pagliai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"DAGRI\u2014Department Agricultural, Food Production and Forest Management, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 15, 50144 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0658-6981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Ammoniaci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CREA\u2014Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Research Centre for Viticulture and Enology, Viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6990-7573","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniele","family":"Sarri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DAGRI\u2014Department Agricultural, Food Production and Forest Management, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 15, 50144 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Riccardo","family":"Lisci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DAGRI\u2014Department Agricultural, Food Production and Forest Management, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 15, 50144 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4591-4370","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rita","family":"Perria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CREA\u2014Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Research Centre for Viticulture and Enology, Viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6167-5322","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Vieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DAGRI\u2014Department Agricultural, Food Production and Forest Management, University of Florence, Piazzale delle Cascine 15, 50144 Firenze, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mauro Eugenio Maria","family":"D\u2019Arcangelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CREA\u2014Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Research Centre for Viticulture and Enology, Viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7534-5634","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo","family":"Storchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CREA\u2014Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Research Centre for Viticulture and Enology, Viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6627-961X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon-Paolo","family":"Kartsiotis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CREA\u2014Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Research Centre for Viticulture and Enology, Viale Santa Margherita 80, 52100 Arezzo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4878","DOI":"10.1002\/jsfa.9693","article-title":"State-of-the-art technologies in precision agriculture: A systematic review","volume":"99","author":"Bhakta","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Sci. Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verma, N.K., Lamb, D.W., Reid, N., and Wilson, B. (2016). Comparison of canopy volume measurements of scattered eucalypt farm trees derived from high spatial resolution imagery and LiDAR. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8050388"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sassu, A., Gambella, F., Ghiani, L., Mercenaro, L., Caria, M., and Pazzona, A.L. (2021). Advances in Unmanned Aerial System Remote Sensing for Precision Viticulture. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21030956"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1","article-title":"A History of Precision Agriculture","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Precision Agriculture Technology for Crop Farming"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarri, D., Lombardo, S., Pagliai, A., Perna, C., Lisci, R., De Pascale, V., Rimediotti, M., Cencini, G., and Vieri, M. (2020). Smart farming introduction in wine farms: A systematic review and a new proposal. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12177191"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ammoniaci, M., Kartsiotis, S.P., Perria, R., and Storchi, P. (2021). State of the art of monitoring technologies and data processing for precision viticulture. Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11030201"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.17660\/ActaHortic.2013.978.3","article-title":"The new architecture in the vineyard system management for variable rate technologies and traceability","volume":"978","author":"Vieri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Hortic."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0238.2000.tb00167.x","article-title":"Light and temperature effects on shoot fruitfulness in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Sultana: Influence of trellis type and grafting","volume":"6","author":"Sommer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aust. J. Grape Wine Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.5344\/ajev.2009.60.2.173","article-title":"Whole-canopy gas exchange and light interception of vertically trained Vitis vinifera L. under direct and diffuse light","volume":"60","author":"Petrie","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Enol. Vitic."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0238.2000.tb00173.x","article-title":"Canopy microclimate and berry composition: The effect of bunch exposure on the phenolic composition of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Shiraz grape berries","volume":"6","author":"Haselgrove","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aust. J. Grape Wine Res."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"211","article-title":"Grape canopy structure, light microclimate and photosynthesis. I: A two-dimensional model of the spatial distribution of surface area densities and leaf ages in two canopy systems","volume":"34","author":"Schultz","year":"1995","journal-title":"Vitis"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eja.2016.04.004","article-title":"Variations in soil-water use by grapevine according to plant water status and soil physical-chemical characteristics\u2014A 3D spatio-temporal analysis","volume":"77","author":"Brillante","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Agron."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2018.06.065","article-title":"Effects of soil erosion on agro-ecosystem services and soil functions: A multidisciplinary study in nineteen organically farmed European and Turkish vineyards","volume":"223","author":"Costantini","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sirera, \u00c0.P., Antichi, D., Raffa, D.W., and Rallo, G. (2021). Application of remote sensing techniques to discriminate the effect of different soil management treatments over rainfed vineyards in chianti terroir. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13040716"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zombardo, A., Crosatti, C., Bagnaresi, P., Bassolino, L., Reshef, N., Puccioni, S., Faccioli, P., Tafuri, A., Delledonne, M., and Fait, A. (2020). Transcriptomic and biochemical investigations support the role of rootstock-scion interaction in grapevine berry quality. BMC Genom., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-020-06795-5"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Pergher, G., and Petris, R. (2008). Pesticide dose adjustment to the canopy parameters for treatments to the tree crops. Proceedings of the Giornate Fitopatologiche, ATTI Giornate Fitopatologiche (University of Bologna, Department of Agri-Food Sciences and Technologies, Bologna)."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3671","DOI":"10.3390\/s150203671","article-title":"Towards an optimized method of olive tree crown volume measurement","volume":"15","author":"Llorens","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(93)90046-K","article-title":"Indirect measurement of leaf area index in Pima cotton (Gossypium barbadense L.) using a commercial gap inversion method","volume":"67","author":"Grantz","year":"1993","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.21273\/HORTSCI.35.4.696","article-title":"Nondestructive methods to estimate leaf area in Vitis vinifera L.","volume":"35","author":"Montero","year":"2000","journal-title":"HortScience"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"55","article-title":"Easy and accurate estimation of grapevine leaf area with simple mathematical models","volume":"44","author":"Lopes","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vitis\u2014J. Grapevine Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.17660\/ActaHortic.2000.537.7","article-title":"Grapevine leaf area index evaluation by Gap Fraction Inversion","volume":"537","author":"Cohen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Hortic."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Smart, R.E., and Smith, S.M. (1988). Canopy management: Identifying the problems and practical solutions. Second Int. Cool Clim. Vitic. Oenology Symp., 109\u2013115."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2860","DOI":"10.3390\/s150202860","article-title":"Digital cover photography for estimating Leaf area index (LAI) in apple trees using a variable light extinction coefficient","volume":"15","author":"Fuentes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.21273\/HORTSCI.39.2.236","article-title":"Indirect measurement of leaf area index in California North Coast vineyards","volume":"39","author":"Johnson","year":"2004","journal-title":"HortScience"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2011.09.007","article-title":"A review of methods and applications of the geometric characterization of tree crops in agricultural activities","volume":"81","author":"Rosell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comba, L., Biglia, A., Aimonino, D.R., Barge, P., Tortia, C., and Gay, P. (2019, January 24\u201326). 2D and 3D data fusion for crop monitoring in precision agriculture. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for Agriculture and Forestry (MetroAgriFor), Portici, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MetroAgriFor.2019.8909219"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2009.12.022","article-title":"Variable rate dosing in precision viticulture: Use of electronic devices to improve application efficiency","volume":"29","author":"Llorens","year":"2010","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.3390\/s110202177","article-title":"Ultrasonic and LIDAR sensors for electronic canopy characterization in vineyards: Advances to improve pesticide application methods","volume":"11","author":"Llorens","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2012.11.013","article-title":"Relationship between tree row LIDAR-volume and leaf area density for fruit orchards and vineyards obtained with a LIDAR 3D Dynamic Measurement System","volume":"171\u2013172","author":"Sanz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.4081\/jae.2013.313","article-title":"The RHEA-project robot for tree crops pesticide application","volume":"44","author":"Vieri","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Agric. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2006.11.003","article-title":"Variable rate application of plant protection products in vineyard using ultrasonic sensors","volume":"26","author":"Gil","year":"2007","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03356338","article-title":"Design and testing of an automated system for targeted spraying in orchards","volume":"117","author":"Stajnko","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Plant Dis. Prot."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.5545\/sv-jme.2011.015","article-title":"Design and testing of an ultrasound system for targeted spraying in orchards","volume":"57","author":"Jejcic","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mech. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00e9ndez, V., P\u00e9rez-Romero, A., Sola-Guirado, R., Miranda-Fuentes, A., Manzano-Agugliaro, F., Zapata-Sierra, A., and Rodr\u00edguez-Lizana, A. (2019). In-field estimation of orange number and size by 3D laser scanning. Agronomy, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy9120885"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khaliq, A., Comba, L., Biglia, A., Ricauda Aimonino, D., Chiaberge, M., and Gay, P. (2019). Comparison of satellite and UAV-based multispectral imagery for vineyard variability assessment. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11040436"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2971","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70302971","article-title":"Intercomparison of UAV, aircraft and satellite remote sensing platforms for precision viticulture","volume":"7","author":"Matese","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.20870\/oeno-one.2020.54.4.4028","article-title":"Comparison between satellite and ground data with UAV-based information to analyse vineyard spatio-temporal variability","volume":"54","author":"Pastonchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oeno One"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1186\/s13007-020-00632-2","article-title":"Evaluation of novel precision viticulture tool for canopy biomass estimation and missing plant detection based on 2.5D and 3D approaches using RGB images acquired by UAV platform","volume":"16","author":"Matese","year":"2020","journal-title":"Plant Methods"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Del-Moral-Mart\u00ednez, I., Rosell-Polo, J.R., Company, J., Sanz, R., Escol\u00e0, A., Masip, J., Mart\u00ednez-Casasnovas, J.A., and Arn\u00f3, J. (2016). Mapping vineyard leaf area using mobile terrestrial laser scanners: Should rows be scanned on-the-go or discontinuously sampled?. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16010119"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chandel, A.K., Khot, L.R., Molaei, B., Peters, R.T., St\u00f6ckle, C.O., and Jacoby, P.W. (2021). High-resolution spatiotemporal water use mapping of surface and direct-root-zone drip-irrigated grapevines using uas-based thermal and multispectral remote sensing. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13050954"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Bei, R., Fuentes, S., Gilliham, M., Tyerman, S., Edwards, E., Bianchini, N., Smith, J., and Collins, C. (2016). Viticanopy: A free computer app to estimate canopy vigor and porosity for grapevine. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16040585"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fareed, N., and Rehman, K. (2020). Integration of remote sensing and GIS to extract plantation rows from a drone-based image point cloud digital surface model. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9030151"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2014.10.003","article-title":"Vineyard yield estimation by automatic 3D bunch modelling in field conditions","volume":"110","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8284","DOI":"10.3390\/s150408284","article-title":"Vineyard yield estimation based on the analysis of high resolution images obtained with artificial illumination at night","volume":"15","author":"Font","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.5194\/soil-1-459-2015","article-title":"Evaluation of vineyard growth under four irrigation regimes using vegetation and soil on-the-go sensors","volume":"1","author":"Blanco","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soil"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matese, A., and Di Gennaro, S.F. (2018). Practical applications of a multisensor UAV platform based on multispectral, thermal and RGB high resolution images in precision viticulture. Agriculture, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture8070116"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.20870\/oeno-one.2020.54.2.2954","article-title":"Vigor thresholded NDVI is a key early risk indicator of botrytis bunch rot in vineyards","volume":"54","author":"Roudet","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oeno One"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-019-09643-z","article-title":"Development of canopy vigour maps using UAV for site-specific management during vineyard spraying process","volume":"20","author":"Campos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0238.1995.tb00085.x","article-title":"Growth Stages of the Grapevine: Phenological growth stages of the grapevine (Vitis vinifera L. ssp. vinifera)\u2014Codes and descriptions according to the extended BBCH scale","volume":"1","author":"Lorenz","year":"1995","journal-title":"Aust. J. Grape Wine Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jurado, J.M., P\u00e1dua, L., Feito, F.R., and Sousa, J.J. (2020). Automatic grapevine trunk detection on UAV-based point cloud. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12183043"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P\u00e1dua, L., Marques, P., Hru\u0161ka, J., Ad\u00e3o, T., Peres, E., Morais, R., and Sousa, J.J. (2018). Multi-temporal vineyard monitoring through UAV-based RGB imagery. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10121907"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anifantis, A.S., Camposeo, S., Vivaldi, G.A., Santoro, F., and Pascuzzi, S. (2019). Comparison of UAV photogrammetry and 3D modeling techniques with other currently used methods for estimation of the tree row volume of a super-high-density olive orchard. Agriculture, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture9110233"},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Pagliai, A., Sarri, D., Lisci, R., Lombardo, S., Vieri, M., Perna, C., Cencini, G., De Pascale, V., and Ara\u00f9jo E Silva Ferraz, G. (2021). Development of an algorithm for assessing canopy volumes with terrestrial LiDAR to implement precision spraying in vineyards. Agron. Res., 19."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"R Core Team (2021). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Wei, T., and Simko, V. (2022, February 03). R Package \u201cCorrplot\u201d: Visualization of a Correlation Matrix. Available online: https:\/\/github.com\/taiyun\/corrplot."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Wickham, H. (2022, February 03). Ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. Available online: https:\/\/ggplot2.tidyverse.org\/."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1016\/0098-3004(96)00021-0","article-title":"Multivariate interpolation to incorporate thematic surface data using inverse distance weighting (IDW)","volume":"22","author":"Bartier","year":"1996","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orlando, F., Movedi, E., Coduto, D., Parisi, S., Brancadoro, L., Pagani, V., Guarneri, T., and Confalonieri, R. (2016). Estimating leaf area index (LAI) in vineyards using the pocketLAI smart-app. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122004"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Baruth, R. (2006). The Basic Practice of Statistics, Craig Bleyer. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qi, Y., Dong, X., Chen, P., Lee, K.-H., Lan, Y., Lu, X., Jia, R., Deng, J., and Zhang, Y. (2021). Canopy Volume Extraction of Citrus reticulate Blanco cv. Shatangju Trees Using UAV Image-Based Point Cloud Deep Learning. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13173437"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cola\u00e7o, A.F., Trevisan, R.G., Molin, J.P., Rosell-Polo, J.R., and Escol\u00e0, A. (2017). A method to obtain orange crop geometry information using a mobile terrestrial laser scanner and 3D modeling. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080763"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.3390\/s140100691","article-title":"Advanced technologies for the improvement of spray application techniques in Spanish viticulture: An overview","volume":"14","author":"Gil","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-012-9295-0","article-title":"Leaf area index estimation in vineyards using a ground-based LiDAR scanner","volume":"14","author":"Llorens","year":"2013","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parmehr, E.G., and Amati, M. (2021). Individual Tree Canopy Parameters Estimation Using UAV-Based Photogrammetric and LiDAR Point Clouds in an Urban Park. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13112062"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krause, S., Sanders, T.G.M., Mund, J.P., and Greve, K. (2019). UAV-based photogrammetric tree height measurement for intensive forest monitoring. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11070758"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rama.2020.03.001","article-title":"Estimates of Willow (Salix Spp.) Canopy Volume using Unmanned Aerial Systems","volume":"73","author":"Karl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rangel. Ecol. Manag."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, J., Dai, T., Li, H., Liao, C., Teng, W., Hu, Q., Ma, W., and Xu, Y. (2019). A novel tree height extraction approach for individual trees by combining TLS and UAV image-based point cloud integration. Forests, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/f10070537"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compag.2018.10.005","article-title":"Unsupervised detection of vineyards by 3D point-cloud UAV photogrammetry for precision agriculture","volume":"155","author":"Comba","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Electron. Agric."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Castro, A.I., Jim\u00e9nez-Brenes, F.M., Torres-S\u00e1nchez, J., Pe\u00f1a, J.M., Borra-Serrano, I., and L\u00f3pez-Granados, F. (2018). 3-D characterization of vineyards using a novel UAV imagery-based OBIA procedure for precision viticulture applications. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10040584"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez-Granados, F., Torres-S\u00e1nchez, J., Jim\u00e9nez-Brenes, F.M., Oneka, O., Mar\u00edn, D., Loidi, M., Castro, A.I.D., and Santesteban, L.G. (2020). Monitoring vineyard canopy management operations using UAV-acquired photogrammetric point clouds. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12142331"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.20870\/oeno-one.2021.55.1.3078","article-title":"Assessment of canopy size using UAV-based point cloud analysis to detect the severity and spatial distribution of canopy decline","volume":"55","author":"Ouyang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oeno One"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.20870\/oeno-one.2020.54.4.3647","article-title":"UAV and ground-based imagery analysis detects canopy structure changes after canopy management","volume":"54","author":"Ouyang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oeno One"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno, H., Valero, C., Bengochea-Guevara, J.M., Ribeiro, \u00c1., Garrido-Izard, M., and And\u00fajar, D. (2020). On-ground vineyard reconstruction using a LiDAR-based automated system. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20041102"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2009.04.008","article-title":"Obtaining the three-dimensional structure of tree orchards from remote 2D terrestrial LIDAR scanning","volume":"149","author":"Rosell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1420","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agrformet.2010.07.005","article-title":"Sensitivity of tree volume measurement to trajectory errors from a terrestrial LIDAR scanner","volume":"150","author":"Palleja","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stafford, J.V. (2013). Electronic characterization of the phenological stages of grapevine using a LIDAR sensor. Proceedings of the Precision Agriculture \u201913, Wageningen Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.3920\/978-90-8686-778-3"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2020.10.016","article-title":"An algorithm to automate the filtering and classifying of 2D LiDAR data for site-specific estimations of canopy height and width in vineyards","volume":"200","author":"Naud","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/5\/1145\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:27:41Z","timestamp":1760135261000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/5\/1145"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14051145"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14051145","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]]}}}