{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,16]],"date-time":"2026-03-16T23:49:51Z","timestamp":1773704991005,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]],"date-time":"2022-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1646784000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001409","name":"Department of Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DST (128)\/2015-16\/447\/AGL"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DST (128)\/2015-16\/447\/AGL"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001409","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Publicly available Digital Elevation Models (DEM) derived from various space-based platforms (Satellite\/Space Shuttle Endeavour) have had a tremendous impact on the quantification of landscape characteristics, and the related processes and products. The accuracy of elevation data from six major public domain satellite-derived Digital Elevation Models (a 30 m grid size\u2014ASTER GDEM version 3 (Ast30), SRTM version 3 (Srt30), CartoDEM version V3R1 (Crt30)\u2014and 90 m grid size\u2014SRTM version 4.1 (Srt90), MERIT (MRT90), and TanDEM-X (TDX90)), as well as the improvement in accuracy achieved by applying a correction (linear fit) using Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) estimates at Ground Control Points (GCPs) is examined in detail. The study area is a hard rock terrain that overall is flat-like with undulating and uneven surfaces (IIT (ISM) Campus and its environs) where the statistical analysis (corrected and uncorrected DEMs), correlation statistics and statistical tests (for elevation and slope), the impact of resampling methods, and the optimum number of GCPs for reduction of error in order to use it in further applications have been presented in detail. As the application of DGPS data at GCPs helps in the substantial reduction of bias by the removal of systematic error, it is recommended that DEMs may be corrected using DGPS before being used in any scientific studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14061334","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,10]],"date-time":"2022-03-10T02:10:35Z","timestamp":1646878235000},"page":"1334","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Accuracy Assessment, Comparative Performance, and Enhancement of Public Domain Digital Elevation Models (ASTER 30 m, SRTM 30 m, CARTOSAT 30 m, SRTM 90 m, MERIT 90 m, and TanDEM-X 90 m) Using DGPS"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1803-778X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kumari","family":"Preety","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Photogeology and Image Processing Laboratory, Department of Applied Geology, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad 826004, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7371-2322","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anup K.","family":"Prasad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Photogeology and Image Processing Laboratory, Department of Applied Geology, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad 826004, India"}]},{"given":"Atul K.","family":"Varma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Photogeology and Image Processing Laboratory, Department of Applied Geology, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad 826004, India"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9876-3705","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hesham","family":"El-Askary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Director Earth Systems Science and Data Solutions Lab, Schmid College of Science and Technology, Chapman University, 452 N. Glassell, Orange, CA 92866, USA"},{"name":"Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Moharem Bek, Alexandria 21522, Egypt"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"RG2004","DOI":"10.1029\/2005RG000183","article-title":"The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission","volume":"45","author":"Farr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"23","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of Open Source Digital Elevation Models","volume":"26","author":"Hassan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Univ. Babylon Eng. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2020.103218","article-title":"Evaluation of the Sensitivity of Hydraulic Model Parameters, Boundary Conditions and Digital Elevation Models on Ice-Jam Flood Delineation","volume":"183","author":"Das","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.8127","article-title":"Evaluation of ASTER GDEM and SRTM and Their Suitability in Hydraulic Modelling of a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood in Southeast Tibet","volume":"26","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Processes"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cageo.2007.05.003","article-title":"Effect of Differing DEM Creation Methods on the Results from a Hydrological Model","volume":"33","author":"Wise","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comput. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2016.07.018","article-title":"Evaluating DEM Conditioning Techniques, Elevation Source Data, and Grid Resolution for Field-Scale Hydrological Parameter Extraction","volume":"540","author":"Woodrow","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"826","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2016.07.435","article-title":"An Investigation of DEM Resolution Influence on Flood Inundation Simulation","volume":"154","author":"Hsu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2017.04.053","article-title":"A DEM-Based Approach for Large-Scale Floodplain Mapping in Ungauged Watersheds","volume":"550","author":"Jafarzadegan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049908542153","article-title":"A Comparative Study on the Production of Satellite Orthoimagery for Geological Remote Sensing","volume":"15","author":"Ganas","year":"2000","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2020.125617","article-title":"Digital Elevation Models for Topographic Characterisation and Flood Flow Modelling along Low-Gradient, Terminal Dryland Rivers: A Comparison of Spaceborne Datasets for the R\u00edo Colorado, Bolivia","volume":"591","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2018.05.006","article-title":"On the Use of Global DEMs in Ecological Modelling and the Accuracy of New Bare-Earth DEMs","volume":"383","author":"Lecours","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Model."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geomorph.2015.01.018","article-title":"Using the ASTER Global DEM to Derive Empirical Relationships among Triangular Facet Slope, Facet Height and Slip Rates along Active Normal Faults","volume":"234","author":"Tsimi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomorphology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6690","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL078324","article-title":"Identification and Characterization of Dust Source Regions across North Africa and the Middle East Using MISR Satellite Observations","volume":"45","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feuerstein, S., and Schepanski, K. (2019). Identification of Dust Sources in a Saharan Dust Hot-Spot and Their Implementation in a Dust-Emission Model. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010004"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106099","article-title":"Sand and Dust Storm Sources Identification: A Remote Sensing Approach","volume":"112","author":"Rayegani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1130\/0091-7613(2002)030<0219:SCORIE>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Spatial Coincidence of Rapid Inferred Erosion with Young Metamorphic Massifs in the Himalayas","volume":"30","author":"Finlayson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26561","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JB000359","article-title":"Fluvial Incision and Tectonic Uplift across the Himalayas of Central Nepal","volume":"106","author":"Avouac","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4401\/ag-6418","article-title":"Demitris Paradissis Strain Patterns along the Kaparelli\u2013Asopos Rift (Central Greece) from Campaign GPS Data","volume":"58","author":"Marinou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1080\/15481603.2015.1060923","article-title":"Bias Corrections of CartoDEM Using ICESat-GLAS Data in Hilly Regions","volume":"52","author":"Rastogi","year":"2015","journal-title":"GIScience Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asej.2017.01.007","article-title":"Vertical Accuracy Assessment for SRTM and ASTER Digital Elevation Models: A Case Study of Najran City, Saudi Arabia","volume":"9","author":"Elkhrachy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ain Shams Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111509","article-title":"Evaluation of ASTER GDEM2, SRTMv3.0, ALOS AW3D30 and TanDEM-X DEMs for the Peruvian Andes against Highly Accurate GNSS Ground Control Points and Geomorphological-Hydrological Metrics","volume":"237","author":"Viveen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1237","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2017.1343392","article-title":"Vertical Accuracy Evaluation of SRTM-GL1, GDEM-V2, AW3D30 and CartoDEM-V3.1 of 30-m Resolution with Dual Frequency GNSS for Lower Tapi Basin India","volume":"33","author":"Jain","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"205","article-title":"Evaluation of Vertical Accuracy of Open Source Digital Elevation Model (DEM)","volume":"21","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2012.724453","article-title":"Comparative Evaluation of Horizontal Accuracy of Elevations of Selected Ground Control Points from ASTER and SRTM DEM with Respect to CARTOSAT-1 DEM: A Case Study of Shahjahanpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India","volume":"28","author":"Rawat","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.02.028","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of ASTER, SRTM, ALOS, and TDX DEMs for Hispaniola and Implications for Mapping Vulnerability to Coastal Flooding","volume":"225","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.2747\/1548-1603.49.1.71","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of ASTER and SRTM DEMs: A Case Study in Andean Patagonia","volume":"49","author":"Lencinas","year":"2012","journal-title":"GIScience Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.geog.2020.06.004","article-title":"Optimizing the Global Digital Elevation Models (GDEMs) and Accuracy of Derived DEMs from GPS Points for Iraq\u2019s Mountainous Areas","volume":"11","author":"Jalal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geod. Geodyn."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-015-0557-x","article-title":"Accuracy of Cartosat-1 DEM and Its Derived Attribute at Multiple Scale Representation","volume":"124","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"107","article-title":"Development and Accuracy Assessment of High-Resolution Digital Elevation Model Using GIS Approaches for the Nile Delta Region, Egypt","volume":"7","author":"Dawod","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Geogr. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asr.2019.05.009","article-title":"Effects of Vertical Accuracy of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Data on Automatic Lineaments Extraction from Shaded DEM","volume":"64","author":"Soliman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Space Res."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"7","article-title":"Performances Evaluation of Different Open Source DEM Using Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS)","volume":"19","author":"Patel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.3189\/002214309788608750","article-title":"Airborne and Spaceborne DEM- and Laser Altimetry-Derived Surface Elevation and Volume Changes of the Bering Glacier System, Alaska, USA, and Yukon, Canada, 1972\u20132006","volume":"55","author":"Muskett","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1087393","article-title":"Contribution of the Patagonia Icefields of South America to Sea Level Rise","volume":"302","author":"Rignot","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.3189\/172756409789624265","article-title":"Svalbard Surge Dynamics Derived from Geometric Changes","volume":"50","author":"Sund","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Glaciol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.01.056","article-title":"Hydraulic Correction Method (HCM) to Enhance the Efficiency of SRTM DEM in Flood Modeling","volume":"559","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.12.005","article-title":"Improving Cartosat-1 DEM Accuracy Using Synthetic Stereo Pair and Triplet","volume":"77","author":"Giribabu","year":"2013","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2015.02.049","article-title":"Satellite-Derived Digital Elevation Model (DEM) Selection, Preparation and Correction for Hydrodynamic Modelling in Large, Low-Gradient and Data-Sparse Catchments","volume":"524","author":"Jarihani","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2013.11.009","article-title":"A Practical Method for SRTM DEM Correction over Vegetated Mountain Areas","volume":"87","author":"Su","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"480","article-title":"On the Suitability of the SRTM DEM and ASTER GDEM for the Compilation of Topographic Parameters in Glacier Inventories","volume":"18","author":"Frey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02990776","article-title":"Extraction and Validation of Cartosat-1 DEM","volume":"35","author":"Ahmed","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-020-04198-z","article-title":"Effects of DEM Resolution and Resampling Technique on Building Treatment for Urban Inundation Modeling: A Case Study for the 2016 Flooding of the HUST Campus in Wuhan","volume":"104","author":"Shen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeog.2015.07.014","article-title":"Impacts of DEM Resolution, Source, and Resampling Technique on SWAT-Simulated Streamflow","volume":"63","author":"Tan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4591","DOI":"10.1007\/s11269-018-2072-8","article-title":"Effect of DEM Resolution, Source, Resampling Technique and Area Threshold on SWAT Outputs","volume":"32","author":"Tan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"133","article-title":"A Comparative Analysis of Different DEM Interpolation Methods","volume":"16","author":"Arun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Remote Sens. Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007586507433","article-title":"An Experimental Comparison of Ordinary and Universal Kriging and Inverse Distance Weighting","volume":"31","author":"Zimmerman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Math. Geol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2015.09.069","article-title":"Incorporating the Effect of DEM Resolution and Accuracy for Improved Flood Inundation Mapping","volume":"530","author":"Saksena","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Szot, T., Specht, C., Specht, M., and Dabrowski, P.S. (2019). Comparative Analysis of Positioning Accuracy of Samsung Galaxy Smartphones in Stationary Measurements. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0215562"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.73.12.1367","article-title":"A Theoretical Approach to Modeling the Accuracy Assessment of Digital Elevation Models","volume":"73","author":"Aguilar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Muralikrishnan, S., Reddy, S., Narender, B., and Pillai, A. (2021, November 16). Evaluation of Indian National DEM from Cartosat-1 Data Summary Report (Ver. 1); NRSC-AS&DM-DP&VASDSEP11-TR 286, Available online: https:\/\/bhuvan-app3.nrsc.gov.in\/data\/download\/tools\/document\/CartoDEMReadme_v1_u1_23082011.pdf."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6205","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903401403","article-title":"SRTM 3\u2033 DEM (Versions 1, 2, 3, 4) Validation by Means of Extensive Kinematic GPS Measurements: A Case Study from North Greece","volume":"31","author":"Mouratidis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsf.2013.12.008","article-title":"Sensitivity of Digital Elevation Models: The Scenario from Two Tropical Mountain River Basins of the Western Ghats, India","volume":"5","author":"Thomas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geosci. Front."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"289","article-title":"Comparative Evaluation of Vertical Accuracy of Elevated Points with Ground Control Points from ASTERDEM and SRTMDEM with Respect to CARTOSAT-1DEM","volume":"13","author":"Rawat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"NASA\/METI\/AIST\/Japan Spacesystems and U.S.\/Japan ASTER Science Team (2021, November 16). ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model V003, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/documents\/434\/ASTGTM_User_Guide_V3.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"ASTER Global (2021, November 16). ASTER Global Digital Elevation Map Announcement, Available online: http:\/\/asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov\/gdem."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Tachikawa, T., Kaku, M., Iwasaki, A., Gesch, D.B., Oimoen, M.J., Zhang, Z., Danielson, J.J., Krieger, T., Curtis, B., and Haase, J. (2021, November 16). ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model Version 2-Summary of Validation Results; NASA, 2011, Available online: https:\/\/lpdaac.usgs.gov\/documents\/220\/Summary_GDEM2_validation_report_final.pdf."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C., Yang, S., and Li, Y. (2020). Accuracy Assessment and Correction of SRTM DEM Using ICESat\/GLAS Data under Data Coregistration. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12203435"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1016\/S0094-5765(01)00020-0","article-title":"The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM): A Breakthrough in Remote Sensing of Topography","volume":"48","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta Astronaut."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Earth Resources Observation And Science Center (2019, November 27). Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) 1 Arc-Second Global, Available online: https:\/\/cmr.earthdata.nasa.gov\/search\/concepts\/C1220567890-USGS_LTA.html."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2003.09.001","article-title":"Validation of Surface Height from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Using Shuttle Laser Altimeter","volume":"88","author":"Sun","year":"2003","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2006.05.012","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of the Processed SRTM-Based Elevation Data by CGIAR Using Field Data from USA and Thailand and Its Relation to the Terrain Characteristics","volume":"104","author":"Gorokhovich","year":"2006","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2007.11.003","article-title":"The Impact of Misregistration on SRTM and DEM Image Differences","volume":"112","author":"McVicar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"NASA SRTM V3 (2021, December 05). NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Version 3.0 Global 1 Arc Second Data Released over Asia and Australia|Earthdata, Available online: https:\/\/earthdata.nasa.gov\/learn\/articles\/nasa-shuttle-radar-topography-mission-srtm-version-3-0-global-1-arc-second-data-released-over-asia-and-australia\/."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.72.3.249","article-title":"A Global Assessment of the SRTM Performance","volume":"72","author":"Morris","year":"2006","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12524-012-0212-9","article-title":"Validation of Indian National DEM from Cartosat-1 Data","volume":"41","author":"Muralikrishnan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Muralikrishnan, S., Kumar, A.S., Manjunath, A., and Rao, K. (2019, January 27). Geometric Quality Assessment of Cartosat-1 Data Products. Available online: https:\/\/www.isprs.org\/proceedings\/XXXVI\/part4\/WG-IV-9-20.pdf."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"1","article-title":"Evaluation of Indian National from Cartosat-1 Data","volume":"2","author":"Muralikrishnan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Indian Space Res. Organ.-NRSC"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020WR028516","DOI":"10.1029\/2020WR028516","article-title":"Bare-Earth DEM Generation in Urban Areas for Flood Inundation Simulation Using Global Digital Elevation Models","volume":"57","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5844","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL072874","article-title":"A High-Accuracy Map of Global Terrain Elevations: Accurate Global Terrain Elevation Map","volume":"44","author":"Yamazaki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3317","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.900693","article-title":"TanDEM-X: A Satellite Formation for High-Resolution SAR Interferometry","volume":"45","author":"Krieger","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2017.08.008","article-title":"Generation and Performance Assessment of the Global TanDEM-X Digital Elevation Model","volume":"132","author":"Rizzoli","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/MGRS.2014.2318895","article-title":"TanDEM-X: The New Global DEM Takes Shape","volume":"2","author":"Zink","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Mag."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3546","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2021.3062286","article-title":"TanDEM-X: 10 Years of Formation Flying Bistatic SAR Interferometry","volume":"14","author":"Zink","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, H., Zeng, Q., and Jiao, J. (2021). Quality Assessment of TanDEM-X DEMs, SRTM and ASTER GDEM on Selected Chinese Sites. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13071304"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111319","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111319","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of the TanDEM-X 90 Digital Elevation Model for Selected Floodplain Sites","volume":"232","author":"Hawker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Wessel, B. (2021, November 16). TanDEM-X Ground Segment DEM Products Specification Document; Public Document TD-GS-PS-0021. 2016; Volume 46. Available online: https:\/\/elib.dlr.de\/108014\/1\/TD-GS-PS-0021_DEM-Product-Specification_v3.1.pdf."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.02.017","article-title":"Accuracy Assessment of the Global TanDEM-X Digital Elevation Model with GPS Data","volume":"139","author":"Wessel","year":"2018","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1892","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2018.2864774","article-title":"Landcover-Dependent Assessment of the Relative Height Accuracy in TanDEM-X DEM Products","volume":"15","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3016","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2021.3055399","article-title":"Using Kinematic GNSS Data to Assess the Accuracy and Precision of the TanDEM-X DEM Resampled at 1-m Resolution Over the Western Corinth Gulf, Greece","volume":"14","author":"Briole","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhardwaj, A. (2019). Assessment of Vertical Accuracy for TanDEM-X 90 m DEMs in Plain, Moderate, and Rugged Terrain. Proceedings, 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/IECG2019-06208"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uuemaa, E., Ahi, S., Montibeller, B., Muru, M., and Kmoch, A. (2020). Vertical Accuracy of Freely Available Global Digital Elevation Models (ASTER, AW3D30, MERIT, TanDEM-X, SRTM, and NASADEM). Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12213482"},{"key":"ref_81","unstructured":"El-Rabbany, A. (2002). Artech House mobile communications series. Introduction to GPS: The Global Positioning System, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Drira, A. (2019, January 27). GPS Navigation for Outdoor and Indoor Environments. University of Tennessee, Knoxville; 2006. Available online: https:\/\/www.imaging.utk.edu\/publications\/papers\/dissertation\/Anis_Pilot.pdf."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Horecny, V. (2019, January 27). Can We Trust A-GPS Technology to Deliver Accurate Location on a Smartphone Device?. Available online: https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Can-we-trust-A-GPS-technology-to-deliver-accurate-a-Horecny\/eee167c4fcde97b609a499c403b7e1d3cd4de7e2."},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"(2021, December 23). Gdal_translate\u2014GDAL Documentation. Available online: https:\/\/gdal.org\/programs\/gdal_translate.html#gdal-translate."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"(2021, December 23). GeographicLib\u2014Browse\/Geoids-Distrib at SourceForge.Net. Available online: https:\/\/sourceforge.net\/projects\/geographiclib\/files\/geoids-distrib\/."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Kaplan, E.D., and Hegarty, C.J. (2006). Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications, Artech House. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"(2021, December 23). Geoid Height Calculator|Software|UNAVCO. Available online: https:\/\/www.unavco.org\/software\/geodetic-utilities\/geoid-height-calculator\/geoid-height-calculator.html."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.15292\/geodetski-vestnik.2019.04.541-553","article-title":"The Impact of Data Normalization on 2D Coordinate Transformation Using GRNN","volume":"63","author":"Cakir","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geod. Vestn."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruiz, G., and Bandera, C. (2017). Validation of Calibrated Energy Models: Common Errors. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10101587"},{"key":"ref_90","unstructured":"National Bureau of Standards, NBS Special Publication, ASTM Special Technical Publication, and U.S. Government Printing Office (2019, January 27). Available online: https:\/\/books.google.com\/books\/download\/NBS_Special_Publication.pdf?id=mp3kUzm76RYC&output=pdf."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma, Y., Liu, H., Jiang, B., Meng, L., Guan, H., Xu, M., Cui, Y., Kong, F., Yin, Y., and Wang, M. (2020). An Innovative Approach for Improving the Accuracy of Digital Elevation Models for Cultivated Land. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12203401"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1080\/15481603.2015.1019708","article-title":"Comparison of DEMS Derived from USGS DLG, SRTM, a Statewide Photogrammetry Program, ASTER GDEM and LiDAR: Implications for Change Detection","volume":"52","author":"DeWitt","year":"2015","journal-title":"GIScience Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.11648\/j.ajrs.20130101.11","article-title":"Evaluation of DEM, and Orthoimage Generated from Cartosat-1 with Its Potential for Feature Extraction and Visualization","volume":"1","author":"Bhardwaj","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLI-B4-149-2016","article-title":"Vertical accuracy assessment of 30-m resolution alos, aster, and srtm global dems over northeastern mindanao, philippines","volume":"XLI-B4","author":"Santillan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2419","DOI":"10.3390\/rs4082419","article-title":"Evaluation of ASTER GDEM2 in Comparison with GDEM1, SRTM DEM and Topographic-Map-Derived DEM Using Inundation Area Analysis and RTK-DGPS Data","volume":"4","author":"Suwandana","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2021.1910575","article-title":"Assessment of Vertical Accuracy of Open Source 30m Resolution Space-Borne Digital Elevation Models","volume":"12","author":"Talchabhadel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.04.043","article-title":"Evaluation of TanDEM-X DEMs on Selected Brazilian Sites: Comparison with SRTM, ASTER GDEM and ALOS AW3D30","volume":"212","author":"Grohmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1504\/IJSPACESE.2013.059270","article-title":"TanDEM-X: DEM Acquisition in the Third Year Era","volume":"1","author":"Tridon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Space Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2993","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2007.898238","article-title":"Robust Stereo Image Matching for Spaceborne Imagery","volume":"45","author":"Radhika","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/6\/1334\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:33:57Z","timestamp":1760135637000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/6\/1334"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14061334"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14061334","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,9]]}}}