{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T02:58:54Z","timestamp":1760151534315,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]],"date-time":"2022-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647561600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004731","name":"Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["LGF21D060002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LGF21D060002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004731","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Project of State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography","award":["SOEDZZ2205"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SOEDZZ2205"]}]},{"name":"the Scientific Research Fund of the Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources of China","award":["JG1708"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JG1708"]}]},{"name":"Project of Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai)","award":["311021004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["311021004"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41976163"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41976163"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, sea surface wind speed was retrieved using the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) dual-frequency precipitation radar (DPR) Ka-band data. In order to establish the Ka-band model at low incidence angles, the dependence of the DPR Ka-band normalized radar cross section (NRCS) on the wind speed, incidence angle, sea surface temperature (SST), significant wave height (SWH), and sea surface current speed (CSPD) was analyzed first. We confirmed that the normalized radar cross section depends on the wind speed, incidence angle, and SST. Second, an empirical model at low incidence angles was established. This model links the Ka-band NRCS to the incidence angle, wind speed, and SST. Additionally, the wind speed was retrieved by the model and was validated via the GPM Microwave Imager (GMI) wind product. The validation yielded a root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.45 m\/s and the RMSE was better at a lower incidence angle and a higher SST. This model may expand the use of GPM DPR data in enriching the sea surface wind speed data set. It is also helpful for other Ka-band spaceborne radars at low incidence angles to measure wind speed in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14061454","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,20]],"date-time":"2022-03-20T21:37:17Z","timestamp":1647812237000},"page":"1454","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Wind Speed Retrieval Using Global Precipitation Measurement Dual-Frequency Precipitation Radar Ka-Band Data at Low Incidence Angles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9365-5799","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chong","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Oceanography, Hohai University, 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210024, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, 36 Baochubei Road, Hangzhou 310012, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1121-8980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lin","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, 36 Baochubei Road, Hangzhou 310012, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), 1 Jintang Road, Zhuhai 519082, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7514-3212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingsong","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, 36 Baochubei Road, Hangzhou 310012, China"},{"name":"Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), 1 Jintang Road, Zhuhai 519082, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0214-744X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qing","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Oceanography, Hohai University, 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210024, China"}]},{"given":"Jinyuan","family":"Dai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, 36 Baochubei Road, Hangzhou 310012, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"5767","article-title":"An improved C-band scatterometer ocean geophysical model function: CMOD5","volume":"11","author":"Hersbach","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4252","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2194157","article-title":"Ocean Vector Winds Retrieval From C-Band Fully Polarimetric SAR Measurements","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2003)20<549:TRBWSR>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Relationship between Winds, Surface Roughness, and Radar Backscatter at Low Incidence Angles from TRMM Precipitation Radar Measurements","volume":"20","author":"Freilich","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2030","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2002)019<2030:ATPWSA>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Two-Parameter Wind Speed Algorithm for Ku-Band Altimeters","volume":"19","author":"Gourrion","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2001)018<0421:SARART>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"SWIMSAT: A Real-Aperture Radar to Measure Directional Spectra of Ocean Waves from Space\u2014Main Characteristics and Performance Simulation","volume":"18","author":"Hauser","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1968.1139220","article-title":"Rough Surface Scattering Based on the Specular Point Theory","volume":"16","author":"Barrick","year":"1968","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11411","DOI":"10.1029\/92JC00766","article-title":"Sea surface mean square slope from K u -band backscatter data","volume":"97","author":"Jackson","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2002)019<0658:ASWMBM>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Surface Wind Model Based Method to Estimate Rain-Induced Radar Path Attenuation over Ocean","volume":"19","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.3390\/s6030193","article-title":"Combined Wind Vector and Sea State Impact on Ocean Nadir-Viewing Ku- and C-Band Radar Cross-Sections","volume":"6","author":"Ngan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2007.896329","article-title":"Effect of Long Waves on Ku-Band Ocean Radar Backscatter at Low Incidence Angles Using TRMM and Altimeter Data","volume":"4","author":"Tran","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016012","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.10.016012","article-title":"Wind speed retrieval from Ku-band Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission precipitation radar data at low incidence angles","volume":"10","author":"Ren","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5262","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2581215","article-title":"Sea Surface Wind Speed Inversion Using the Low Incident NRCS Measured by TRMM Precipitation Radar","volume":"9","author":"Bao","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panfilova, M., and Karaev, V. (2021). Wind Speed Retrieval Algorithm Using Ku-Band Radar Onboard GPM Satellite. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13224565"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4599","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2191560","article-title":"Relationships Between Ku-Band Radar Backscatter and Integrated Wind and Wave Parameters at Low Incidence Angles","volume":"50","author":"Chu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X., Zhang, B., Mouche, A., He, Y., and Perrie, W. (2017). Ku-Band Sea Surface Radar Backscatter at Low Incidence Angles under Extreme Wind Conditions. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9050474"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chu, X., He, Y., and Chen, G. (2010, January 25\u201330). A new algorithm for wind speed at low incidence angles using TRMM Precipitation Radar data. Proceedings of the 2010 IEEE International Geoscience & Remote Sensing Symposium, Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2010.5652819"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020EA001505","DOI":"10.1029\/2020EA001505","article-title":"Ocean Surface Wind Speed Dependence and Retrieval From Off-Nadir CFOSAT SWIM Data","volume":"8","author":"Ren","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Space Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2016.2520823","article-title":"Sea Surface Reflectivity Variation With Ocean Temperature at Ka-Band Observed Using Near-Nadir Satellite Radar Data","volume":"13","author":"Vandemark","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hossan, A., and Jones, W.L. (2021). Ku- and Ka-Band Ocean Surface Radar Backscatter Model Functions at Low-Incidence Angles Using Full-Swath GPM DPR Data. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13081569"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panfilova, M.A., and Karaev, V.Y. (2016, January 10\u201315). Evaluation of the boundary wave number for the two-scale model of backscatter of microwaves in Ka- and Ku-band by the sea surface using the Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar data. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2016.7729956"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bao, Q., Zhang, Y., An, W., Cui, L., and Peng, G. (2016, January 10\u201315). Sea surface wind speed inversion using low incident NRCS. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2016\u20142016 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2016.7730205"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4718","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2018.2879753","article-title":"Sea Surface Wind Speed Retrieval and Validation of the Interferometric Imaging Radar Altimeter Aboard the Chinese Tiangong-2 Space Laboratory","volume":"11","author":"Ren","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, Q., Zhang, J., Fan, C., and Meng, J. (2019). Analysis of Ku- and Ka-Band Sea Surface Backscattering Characteristics at Low-Incidence Angles Based on the GPM Dual-Frequency Precipitation Radar Measurements. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11070754"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2135","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2600749","article-title":"SST Dependence of Ku- and C-Band Backscatter Measurements","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4014","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2189010","article-title":"Asymmetry and Anisotropy of Microwave Backscatter at Low Incidence Angles","volume":"50","author":"Chu","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1973","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803846","article-title":"Impact of rain on spaceborne Ku-band wind scatterometer data","volume":"40","author":"Stiles","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2882","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2008.2001032","article-title":"Measurements of the effect of rain-induced sea surface roughness on the satellite scatterometer radar cross section","volume":"46","author":"Weissman","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2495","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2185933","article-title":"Rain Effects on ASCAT-Retrieved Winds: Toward an Improved Quality Control","volume":"50","author":"Portabella","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, W., Portabella, M., Zhao, X., and Lang, S. (October, January 26). Rain Effects on CFOSAT Scatterometer: Towards an Improved Wind Quality Control. Proceedings of the IGARSS 2020\u20142020 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS39084.2020.9324154"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1981.1142653","article-title":"Rough Surface Scattering Using Specular Point Theory","volume":"29","author":"Barrick","year":"1981","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4805","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2170842","article-title":"The Influence of Rainfall on Scatterometer Backscatter Within Tropical Cyclone Environments\u2014Implications on Parameterization of Sea-Surface Stress","volume":"49","author":"Weissman","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Contreras, R.F., Plant, W.J., Keller, W.C., Hayes, K., and Nystuen, J. (2003). Effects of rain on Ku-band backscatter from the ocean. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean., 108.","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JC001255"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1388","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2017.1285081","article-title":"A Ku-band wind and rain backscatter model at low-incidence angles using Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission precipitation radar data","volume":"38","author":"Ren","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/6\/1454\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:38:42Z","timestamp":1760135922000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/6\/1454"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14061454"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14061454","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]}}}