{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T17:54:51Z","timestamp":1774979691473,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]],"date-time":"2022-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647561600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Innovation Training Network Marie Sk\u0142odowska-Curie Action Train2Wind.","award":["861291"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["861291"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>When installing offshore wind farms (OWFs) adjacent to the coast, one needs to consider the combined effects of the wind wakes caused by the OWFs and natural horizontal coastal wind speed gradients (HCWSGs). This study exploits the full Sentinel 1A\/B and Envisat archive of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery covering the northern European seas. More than 8700 SAR scenes fit well with our selection criteria and are processed as wind maps for the height 10 m above the sea surface. For eight selected wind farm sites, we systematically compare the wind flow variation before and after wind farm commissioning. Before the commissioning, we observe wind speed gradients up to \u00b14% for onshore and offshore winds. After the commissioning, we detect a 2\u201310% reduction in the mean wind speed downstream of the turbines after taking into account the background wind speed gradients. These velocity deficits are proportional to the OWF capacity. Our findings indicate that wind speed maps retrieved from SAR can be used to quantify the complex interactions between natural HCWSGs and turbine-induced effects on the mean wind climate. Ultimately, this can be used in connection with farm planning in coastal waters.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14061464","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,20]],"date-time":"2022-03-20T21:37:17Z","timestamp":1647812237000},"page":"1464","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Wind Speed Variation Mapped Using SAR before and after Commissioning of Offshore Wind Farms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7758-533X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdalmenem","family":"Owda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2072-8619","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Merete","family":"Badger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Wind Energy, Technical University of Denmark, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1383","DOI":"10.3390\/en3071383","article-title":"Coastal and Offshore Wind Energy Generation: Is it environmentally benign","volume":"3","author":"Wilson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Energies"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Sesto, E., and Lipman, N.H. (2022, March 08). Wind Energy in Europe. Wind Europe, Brussels Belgium. Available online: https:\/\/gwec.net\/global-offshore-wind-report-2021\/."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.03.019","article-title":"Sea surface wind retrieval in coastal areas by means of Sentinel-1 and numerical weather prediction model data","volume":"225","author":"Rana","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.5194\/wes-5-375-2020","article-title":"Europe\u2019s offshore winds assessed with synthetic aperture radar, ASCAT and WRF","volume":"5","author":"Hasager","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wind Energy Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.5194\/wes-3-573-2018","article-title":"Applications of satellite winds for the offshore wind farm site Anholt","volume":"3","author":"Ahsbahs","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wind Energy Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allan, T.D. (2008). Remote Sensing of the European Seas: A Historical Outlook, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-6772-3_2"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Dagestad, K.-F., Horstmann, J., Mouche, A., Perrie, W., Shen, H., Zhang, B., Li, X., Monaldo, F., Pichel, W., and Lehner, S. (2012, January 18\u201322). Wind Retrieval from Synthetic Aperture Radar\u2014An Overview. Proceedings of the 4th SAR Oceanography Workshop (SEASAR 2012), Troms\u00f8, Norway."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Yang, J., Mouche, A., Shao, W., Zhu, J., Ren, L., and Xie, C. (2017). GF-3 SAR oceanwind retrieval: The first view and preliminary assessment. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070694"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2008.2002218","article-title":"Remote sensing observation used in offshore wind energy","volume":"1","author":"Hasager","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00913863","article-title":"Theories for the interaction of electromagnetic and oceanic waves\u2014A review","volume":"13","author":"Valenzuela","year":"1978","journal-title":"Bound.-Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2019.111316","article-title":"Inter-calibration of SAR data series for offshore wind resource assessment","volume":"232","author":"Badger","year":"2019","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1080\/2150704X.2018.1430392","article-title":"Validation of wind speed retrieval from RISAT-1 SAR images of the North Indian Ocean","volume":"9","author":"Jagdish","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"01001","DOI":"10.1051\/e3sconf\/202129901001","article-title":"Assessment of Sentinel-1A\/B SAR Derived Ocean Wind Speeds against Scatterometer in the Presence of Ocean Swells","volume":"299","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"E3S Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahsbahs, T., Badger, M., Karagali, I., and Lars\u00e9n, X.G. (2017). Validation of sentinel-1A SAR coastal wind speeds against scanning LiDAR. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9060552"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"J\u00a2rgensen, B.H., Furevik, B., Hasager, C.B., Astrup, P., Rathmann, O., Barthelmie, R.J., and Pryor, S.C. (2001, January 12). Off-shore wind fields obtained from mesoscale modeling and satellite SAR images. Proceedings of the EWEA Offshore Wind Energy Special Topic Conference, Brussels, Belgium."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5041956","article-title":"Comparison of geophysical model functions for SAR wind speed retrieval in Japanese coastal waters","volume":"5","author":"Takeyama","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"594","article-title":"Offshore winds mapped from satellite remote sensing","volume":"3","author":"Hasager","year":"2014","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Energy Environ."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Cameron, I., Lumsdon, P., Walker, N., and Woodhouse, I. (2006, January 23\u201326). Synthetic Aperture Radar for Offshore Wind Resource Assessment and Wind Farm Development in the UK. Proceedings of theSEASAR 2006: Advances in SAR Oceanography from Envisat and ERS Missions, Frascati, Italy."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.07.008","article-title":"Satellite winds as a tool for offshore wind resource assessment: The Great Lakes Wind Atlas","volume":"168","author":"Doubrawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1260\/030952407784079762","article-title":"Offshore coastal wind speed gradients: Issues for the design and development of large offshore windfarms","volume":"31","author":"Barthelmie","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wind Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Romeiser, R., Ufermann, S., and Kern, S. (2004, January 3). Status report on the remote sensing of current features by spaceborne synthetic aperture radar. Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop Coastal Marine Application SAR, Hamburg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Hasager, C., Astrup, P., Barthelmie, R., and Dellwik, E. (2002). Validation of Satellite SAR Offshore Wind Speed Maps to In-Situ Data, Microscale and Mesoscale Model Results, Forskningscenter Risoe."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hasager, C.B., Nygaard, N.G., Volker, P.J.H., Karagali, I., Andersen, S.J., and Badger, J. (2017). Wind farm wake: The 2016 Horns Rev photo case. Energies, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/en10030317"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-019-00473-0","article-title":"Wind-Turbine and Wind-Farm Flows: A Review","volume":"174","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bound.-Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2005.07.009","article-title":"Wake effects of large offshore wind farms identified from satellite SAR","volume":"98","author":"Christiansen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahsbahs, T., Nygaard, N.G., Newcombe, A., and Badger, M. (2020). Wind farm wakes from SAR and doppler radar. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030462"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1302","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1398.1","article-title":"Quantifying the impact of wind turbine wakes on power output at offshore wind farms","volume":"27","author":"Barthelmie","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herges, T.G., Maniaci, D.C., Naughton, B.T., Mikkelsen, T., and Sj\u00f6holm, M. (2017). High resolution wind turbine wake measurements with a scanning lidar. J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 854.","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/854\/1\/012021"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1175\/2010JTECHA1483.1","article-title":"Wake measurements of a multi-MW wind turbine with coherent long-range pulsed doppler wind lidar","volume":"27","author":"Rahm","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2881","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-10-2881-2017","article-title":"Three-dimensional structure of wind turbine wakes as measured by scanning lidar","volume":"10","author":"Bodini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2019.113816","article-title":"Investigation of wind turbine performance coupling wake and topography effects based on LiDAR measurements and SCADA data","volume":"255","author":"Gao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2163","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-20389-y","article-title":"First in situ evidence of wakes in the far field behind offshore wind farms","volume":"8","author":"Platis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goit, J.P., Shimada, S., and Kogaki, T. (2019). Can Lidars replace meteorological masts in wind energy?. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12193680"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R\u00f6sner, B., Egli, S., Thies, B., Beyer, T., Callies, D., Pauscher, L., and Bendix, J. (2020). Fog and Low Stratus Obstruction of Wind Lidar Observations in Germany A Remote Sensing-Based Data Set for Wind Energy Planning. Energies, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/en13153859"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JC003743","article-title":"An improved C-band scatterometer ocean geophysical model function: CMOD5","volume":"112","author":"Hersbach","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2019.2905578","article-title":"A Geophysical Model Function for Wind Speed Retrieval from C-Band HH-Polarized Synthetic Aperture Radar","volume":"16","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2417","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2018.2836661","article-title":"A C-Band geophysical model function for determining coastal wind speed using synthetic aperture radar","volume":"11","author":"Lu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monaldo, F., Jackson, W.G., and Li, X. (2015). A weather eye on coastal winds. Eos, 96.","DOI":"10.1029\/2015EO034581"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneemann, J., Theuer, F., Rott, A., D\u00f6renk\u00e4mper, M., and K\u00fchn, M. (2020). Offshore wind farm global blockage measured with scanning lidar. Wind Energy Sci. Discuss., 1\u201326.","DOI":"10.5194\/wes-2020-124"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012035","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/625\/1\/012035","article-title":"Comparing satellite SAR and wind farm wake models","volume":"625","author":"Hasager","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2013.01.017","article-title":"Spatial and temporal variability of winds in the Northern European Seas","volume":"57","author":"Karagali","year":"2013","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-008-9323-9","article-title":"Measurements and modelling of the wind speed profile in the marine atmospheric boundary layer","volume":"129","author":"Gryning","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bound.-Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1002\/we.2484","article-title":"Offshore wind farm wake recovery: Airborne measurements and its representation in engineering models","volume":"23","author":"Foreman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wind Energy"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1127\/metz\/2020\/1023","article-title":"Long-range modifications of the wind field by offshore wind parks--Results of the project WIPAFF","volume":"29","author":"Neumann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Meteorol. Z."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"043301","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5020437","article-title":"Impact of atmospheric stability on X-band and C-band synthetic aperture radar imagery of offshore windpark wakes","volume":"10","author":"Djath","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Renew. Sustain. Energy"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/6\/1464\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:38:58Z","timestamp":1760135938000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/6\/1464"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14061464"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14061464","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,18]]}}}