{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T09:12:27Z","timestamp":1769159547906,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]],"date-time":"2022-03-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648425600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000192","name":"National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ST133017CQ0058\/1332KP20FNEED0029"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ST133017CQ0058\/1332KP20FNEED0029"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000192","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We provide consistent theoretical and empirical assessments of the major driving factors of the information content and retrieval performance for current and potential future microwave (MW) sounders. For the specific instrument concepts assessed, we find that instrument noise is a major driver, impacting vertical resolution as measured by the degrees of freedom for signal as much as 50%. We also observe diminished performance in the 118 GHz temperature sounding band as compared to the 50\u201360 GHz band, which is largely due to the increased sensor noise in the assessed 118 GHz sensor for comparable channels\u2014a reduction in the performance gap between 118 GHz and 50 GHz bands can be obtained with a reduction of instrument noise in the 118 GHz temperature sounding channels. As expected, scene-type also significantly impacts the vertical resolution, emphasizing the importance of separating clear, cloudy, rainy, and icy conditions when evaluating instrument performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14071624","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,29]],"date-time":"2022-03-29T21:45:51Z","timestamp":1648590351000},"page":"1624","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Temperature and Moisture Sounding Performance of Current and Prospective Microwave Instruments under All-Sky Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0453-6569","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric S.","family":"Maddy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Riverside Technology, Inc., NOAA\/NESDIS Center for Satellite Applications and Research, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stacy","family":"Bunin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riverside Technology, Inc., NOAA\/NESDIS Center for Satellite Applications and Research, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valerie J.","family":"Mikles","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Technology Corporation, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Narges","family":"Shahroudi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riverside Technology, Inc., NOAA\/NESDIS Center for Satellite Applications and Research, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bungo","family":"Shiotani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAIC, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20770, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sid-Ahmed","family":"Boukabara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NOAA\/NESDIS Center for Satellite Applications and Research, College Park, MD 20740, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2547","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-16-0013.1","article-title":"Potential Gaps in the Satellite Observing System Coverage: Assessment of Impact on NOAA\u2019s Numerical Weather Prediction Overall Skills","volume":"144","author":"Boukabara","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mon. Weather. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-16-0293.1","article-title":"Satellite-Based Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Development and Applications","volume":"99","author":"Menzel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1080\/16742834.2019.1568816","article-title":"The alternative of CubeSat-based advanced infrared and microwave sounders for high impact weather forecasting","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmosp. Ocean. Sci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"85","article-title":"Design and development of the CubeSat Infrared Atmospheric Sounder (CIRAS)","volume":"10402","author":"Butler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Earth Observing Systems XXII."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Blackwell, W., Braun, S.A., Bennartz, R., Velden, C.S., DeMaria, M., Atlas, R., Dunion, J.P., Marks, F.D., Rogers, R., and Annane, B. (2021, January 20\u201324). The NASA TROPICS Cubesat Constellation Observatory. Proceedings of the First Conference on Earth Observing SmallSats and the 22nd Conference on Satellite Meteorology and Oceanography, Virtual. Available online: https:\/\/ams.confex.com\/ams\/98Annual\/webprogram\/Paper332554.html."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"032511","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JRS.13.032511","article-title":"Global analysis and forecast impact assessment of CubeSat MicroMAS-2 on numerical weather prediction","volume":"13","author":"Shahroudi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1980)019<1234:ASNG>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Atmospheric Sounding Near 118 GHz","volume":"19","author":"Ali","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1271562","article-title":"Information content on hydrometeors from millimeter and sub-millimeter wavelengths. Tellus A Dyn","volume":"69","author":"Birman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meteorol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"McCarty, W. Personal communication."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2511","DOI":"10.1256\/qj.01.153","article-title":"Variational retrieval of cloud profile from ATOVS observations","volume":"128","author":"Chevallier","year":"2002","journal-title":"QJR Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bauer, P., Moreau, E., Chevallier, F., and O\u2019Keeffe, U. (2006). Multiple-Scattering Microwave Radiative Transfer for Data Assimilation Applications, ECMWF. Available online: https:\/\/www.ecmwf.int\/node\/7989.","DOI":"10.1256\/qj.05.153"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2010.11.009","article-title":"Validation of the community radiative transfer model","volume":"112","author":"Ding","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodgers, C.D. (2000). Inverse Methods for Atmospheric Sounding: Theory and Practice, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789812813718"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8566","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2021.3104389","article-title":"MIIDAPS-AI: An Explainable Machine-Learning Algorithm for Infrared and Microwave Remote Sensing and Data Assimilation Preprocessing\u2014Application to LEO and GEO Sensors","volume":"14","author":"Maddy","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Koster, R.D. (2022, February 01). 2015: Evaluation of the 7-km GEOS-5 Nature Run, Available online: http:\/\/gmao.gsfc.nasa.gov\/pubs\/docs\/Gelaro736.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0012.1","article-title":"Community Global Observing System Simulation Experiment (OSSE) Package (CGOP): Description and Usage","volume":"33","author":"Boukabara","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-17-0077.1","article-title":"Community Global Observing System Simulation Experiment (OSSE) Package (CGOP): Perfect Observations Simulation Validation","volume":"35","author":"Boukabara","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mattioli, V., Accadia, C., Ackermann, J., Di Michele, S., Hans, I., Schl\u00fcssel, P., Colucci, P., and Canestri, A. (2019, January 17\u201320). The EUMETSAT polar systems Second generation (EPS-SG) passive microwave and Sub-mm wave missions. Proceedings of the 41st PhotonIcs & Electromagnetics Research Symposium\u2014Spring (PIERS-Spring), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIERS-Spring46901.2019.9017822"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blackwell, W., Allen, G., Galbraith, C., Hancock, T., Leslie, R., Osaretin, I., Retherford, L., Scarito, M., Semisch, C., and Shields, M. (2012, January 5\u20139). Nanosatellites for earth environmental monitoring: The micromas project. Proceedings of the 2012 12th Specialist Meeting on Microwave Radiometry and Remote Sensing of the Environment (MicroRad), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MicroRad.2012.6185263"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2021.3133382","article-title":"Hyperspectral Microwave Sensors\u2014Advantages and Limitations","volume":"15","author":"Kummerow","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM2438.1","article-title":"Comparisons of the Millimeter and Submillimeter Bands for Atmospheric Temperature and Water Vapor Soundings for Clear and Cloudy Skies","volume":"45","author":"Prigent","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/7\/1624\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:45:06Z","timestamp":1760136306000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/7\/1624"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14071624"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14071624","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,28]]}}}