{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T20:20:06Z","timestamp":1782937206147,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]],"date-time":"2022-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649808000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Talent &amp; Publication Enhancement-Research Grant (TAPE-RG) Dana Penyelidikan Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (DP\u2013UMT), Vot. No. 55246, UMT\/CRIM\/2-2\/2\/14 Jld.4 (68)","award":["55246"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["55246"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rice is the staple crop for more than half the world\u2019s population, but there is a lack of high-resolution maps outlining rice areas and their growth stages. Most remote sensing studies map the rice extent; however, in tropical regions, rice is grown throughout the year with variable planting dates and cropping frequency. Thus, mapping rice growth stages is more useful than mapping only the extent. This study addressed this challenge by developing a phenology-based method. The hypothesis was that the unsupervised classification (k-means clustering) of Sentinel-1 and 2 time-series data could identify rice fields and growth stages, because (1) the presence of flooding during transplanting can be identified by Sentinel-1 VH backscatter; and (2) changes in the canopy of rice fields during growth stages (vegetative, generative, and ripening phases) up to the point of harvesting can be identified by Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series. Using the proposed method, this study mapped rice field extent and cropping calendars across Peninsular Malaysia (131,598 km2) on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. The Sentinel-1 and 2 monthly time series data from January 2019 to December 2020 were classified using k-means clustering to identify areas with similar phenological patterns. This approach resulted in 10-meter resolution maps of rice field extent, intensity, and cropping calendars. Validation using very high-resolution street view images from Google Earth showed that the predicted map had an overall accuracy of 95.95%, with a kappa coefficient of 0.92. In addition, the predicted crop calendars agreed well with the local government\u2019s granary data. The results show that the proposed phenology-based method is cost-effective and can accurately map rice fields and growth stages over large areas. The information will be helpful in measuring the achievement of self-sufficiency in rice production and estimates of methane emissions from rice cultivation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14081875","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]],"date-time":"2022-04-13T23:07:16Z","timestamp":1649891236000},"page":"1875","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":66,"title":["High-Resolution Mapping of Paddy Rice Extent and Growth Stages across Peninsular Malaysia Using a Fusion of Sentinel-1 and 2 Time Series Data in Google Earth Engine"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0274-249X","authenticated-orcid":false,"family":"Fatchurrachman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Program of Crop Science, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"family":"Rudiyanto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program of Crop Science, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Norhidayah Che","family":"Soh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program of Crop Science, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3918-6829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ramisah Mohd","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program of Crop Science, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sunny Goh Eng","family":"Giap","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Ocean Engineering Technology and Informatics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3046-8248","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Budi Indra","family":"Setiawan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, IPB University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1182-2371","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Budiman","family":"Minasny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Sydney Institute of Agriculture, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, L., Zhang, H., Wang, C., Wei, S., Zhang, B., Wu, F., and Tang, Y. 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