{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T03:02:01Z","timestamp":1760151721631,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,14]],"date-time":"2022-04-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62031014"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62031014"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Hainan Province Key Research and Development Project","award":["ZDYF2019195"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDYF2019195"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The problem that this paper is concerned with is High Frequency Surface Wave Radar (HFSWR) detection of desired targets against a complex interference background consisting of sea clutter, ionosphere clutter, Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and atmospheric noise. Eliminating unwanted echoes and exploring obscured targets contribute to achieving ideal surveillance of sea surface targets. In this paper, a Self-regulating Multi-clutter Suppression Framework (SMSF) has been proposed for small aperture HFSWR. SMSF can remove many types of clutter or RFI; meanwhile, it mines the targets merged into clutter and tracks the travelling path of the ship. In SMSF, a novel Dynamic Threshold Mapping Recognition (DTMR) method is first proposed to reduce the atmospheric noise and recognize each type of unwanted echo; these recognized echoes are fed into the proposed Adaptive Prophase-current Dictionary Learning (APDL) algorithm. To make a comprehensive evaluation, we also designed three novel assessment parameters: Obscured Targets Detection Rate (OTDR), Clutter Purification Rate (CPR) and Erroneous Suppression Rate (ESR). The experiment data collected from a small aperture HFSWR system confirm that SMSF has precise suppression performance over most of the classical algorithms and concurrently reveals the moving targets, and OTDR of SMSF is usually higher than compared methods.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14081901","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,19]],"date-time":"2022-04-19T02:39:31Z","timestamp":1650335971000},"page":"1901","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A Self-Regulating Multi-Clutter Suppression Framework for Small Aperture HFSWR Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Xiaowei","family":"Ji","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronics and Information Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"given":"Qiang","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronics and Information Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"given":"Linwei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronics and Information Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Chan, H.C. (2003). Characterization of Ionospheric Clutter in HF Surface-Wave Radar, Technical Report TR 2003-114."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6372","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2905757","article-title":"High-Frequency Ionospheric Monitoring System for Over-the-Horizon Radar in Canada","volume":"57","author":"Thayaparan","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walsh, J., Huang, W., and Gill, E.W. (2013, January 7\u201313). An analytical model for HF radar ionospheric clutter. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society International Symposium (APSURSI), Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/APS.2013.6711645"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2005.844661","article-title":"Evaluation of ionospheric sporadic-E clutter in an arctic environment for the assessment of high-frequency surface-wave radar surveillance","volume":"43","author":"Thayaparan","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4599","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2020.3014666","article-title":"Experimental Observation and Analysis of Ionosphere Echoes in the Mid-Latitude Region of China Using High-Frequency Surface Wave Radar and Ionosonde","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1029\/2011RS004944","article-title":"Ionospheric and auroral clutter models for HF surface wave and over the horizon radar systems","volume":"47","author":"Ravan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2015.2505778","article-title":"A First-Order HF Radar Cross-Section Model for Mixed-Path Ionosphere\u2013Ocean Propagation with an FMCW Source","volume":"41","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5373","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2016.2618538","article-title":"A High-Frequency Surface Wave Radar Ionospheric Clutter Model for Mixed-Path Propagation with the Second-Order Sea Scattering","volume":"64","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2010.5545171","article-title":"Hybrid detection approach for STAP in heterogeneous clutter","volume":"46","author":"Aboutanios","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1029\/2018RS006645","article-title":"Correction of ionospheric distortion on HF hybrid sky-surface wave radar calibrated by direct wave","volume":"54","author":"Zhou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4326","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2021.3095725","article-title":"Target detection within nonhomogeneous clutter via total bregman divergence-based matrix information geometry detectors","volume":"69","author":"Hua","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1974.9507","article-title":"Sea backscatter at HF: Interpretation and utilization of the echo","volume":"62","author":"Barrick","year":"1974","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"7627521","article-title":"Spread Sea Clutter Suppression in HF Hybrid Sky-Surface Wave Radars Based on General Parameterized Time-Frequency Analysis","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/74.951557","article-title":"An integrated maritime surveillance system based on high-frequency surface wave radars, part 1: Theoretical background and numerical simulations","volume":"43","author":"Sevgi","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1007\/s11045-012-0214-3","article-title":"A hybrid STAP approach to target detection for heterogeneous scenarios in radar seekers","volume":"25","author":"Zhao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Multidim. Syst. Sign. Process."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1631\/FITEE.1900523","article-title":"A convolutional neural network based approach to sea clutter suppression for small boat detection","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Inform. Technol. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"8842390","article-title":"Sea Clutter Suppression Method of HFSWR Based on RBF Neural Network Model Optimized by Improved GWO Algorithm","volume":"2020","author":"Doulamis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., You, W., Wu, Q., Qi, S., and Ji, Y. (2018). Deep Learning-Based Automatic Clutter\/Interference Detection for HFSWR. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10101517"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2018.2828990","article-title":"Radio frequency interference mitigation for high-frequency surface wave radar","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1162","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2018.5441","article-title":"Main-lobe clutter suppression algorithm based on rotating beam method and optimal sample selection for small-aperture HFSWR","volume":"13","author":"Yao","year":"2019","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2016.2560943","article-title":"Radio Frequency Interference Cancelation for Skywave Over-the-Horizon Radar","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-rsn.2010.0041","article-title":"Radio frequency interference cancellation for sea-state remote sensing by high-frequency radar","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IET Radar Sonar Navig."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2770","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2955472","article-title":"A Higher-Order Singular Value Decomposition-Based Radio Frequency Interference Mitigation Method on High-Frequency Surface Wave Radar","volume":"58","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2019.2920092","article-title":"Radio Frequency Interference Suppression for HF Surface Wave Radar Using CEMD and Temporal Windowing Methods","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2011.2181817","article-title":"Radio frequency interference suppression in small-aperture high-frequency radars","volume":"9","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2021.108176","article-title":"MIG Median Detectors with Manifold Filter","volume":"188","author":"Hua","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Processing"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224825","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3044467","article-title":"Target Detection for HFSWR Based on an S3D Algorithm","volume":"8","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170461","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2020.3021508","article-title":"Exploring Deep Learning-Based Architecture, Strategies, Applications and Current Trends in Generic Object Detection: A Comprehensive Review","volume":"8","author":"Aziz","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Girshick, R. (2015, January 7\u201313). Fast R-CNN. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV), Santiago, Chile.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV.2015.169"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"553","article-title":"Object detection in satellite images by faster R-CNN incorporated with enhanced ROI pooling (FrRNet-ERoI) framework","volume":"15","author":"Vasanthanayaki","year":"2022","journal-title":"ESIN"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, W., Liu, H., Li, L., Long, Y., Wang, X., Wang, Z., Li, J., and Chang, Y. (2021). Application of local fully Convolutional Neural Network combined with YOLO v5 algorithm in small target detection of remote sensing image. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0259283"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neucom.2020.09.088","article-title":"Auto-encoder based structured dictionary learning for visual classification","volume":"438","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Shi, S., He, Z., Sun, G., and Cao, J. (2018, January 23\u201327). An ocean clutter suppression method for OTHR by combining optimal filter and dictionary learning. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Radar Conference (RadarConf18), Oklahoma City, OK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2018.8378788"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosenberg, L., Duk, V., and Ng, B. (2020, January 21\u201325). Practical detection using sparse signal separation. Proceedings of the International Radar Conference, Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR42522.2020.9114813"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4311","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2006.881199","article-title":"K-SVD: An algorithm for designing overcomplete dictionaries for sparse representation","volume":"54","author":"Aharon","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Deng, W., Yang, Q., and Dong, Y. (2014, January 13\u201317). Modified Space-Time Adaptive Processing with first-order bragg lines kept in HFSWR. Proceedings of the 2014 International Radar Conference, Lille, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/RADAR.2014.7060424"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1986.1143832","article-title":"An adaptive generalized sidelobe canceller with derivative constraints","volume":"34","author":"Buckley","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Yao, D., Yang, Q., Dong, Y.N., and Deng, W.B. (2018). Knowledge-Based Generalized Side-Lobe Canceller for Ionospheric Clutter Suppression in HFSWR. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10010104"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/8\/1901\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:54:25Z","timestamp":1760136865000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/8\/1901"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,14]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14081901"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14081901","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,14]]}}}