{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T22:00:43Z","timestamp":1774994443835,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,16]],"date-time":"2022-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650067200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NASA Physical Oceanography Program","award":["80NSSC18K0777"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["80NSSC18K0777"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With their complex narrow passages and vigorous mixing, the Indonesian seas provide the only low-latitude pathway between the Pacific and Indian Oceans and thus play an essential role in regulating Pacific-Indian Ocean exchange, regional air-sea interaction, and ultimately, global climate phenomena. While previous investigations using remote sensing and numerical simulations strongly suggest that this mixing is tidally driven, the impacts of monsoon and El Ni\u00f1o Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on tidal mixing in the Indonesian seas must play an important role. Here we use high-resolution sea surface temperature from June 2002 to June 2021 to reveal monsoon and ENSO modulations of mixing. The largest spring-neap (fortnightly) signals are found to be localized in the narrow passages\/straits and sills, with more vigorous tidal mixing during the southeast (boreal summer) monsoon and El Ni\u00f1o than that during the northwest (boreal winter monsoon) and La Ni\u00f1a. Therefore, tidal mixing, which necessarily responds to seasonal and interannual changes in stratification, must also play a feedback role in regulating seasonal and interannual variability of water mass transformations and Indonesian throughflow. The findings have implications for longer-term variations and changes of Pacific\u2013Indian ocean water mass transformation, circulation, and climate.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14081934","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,19]],"date-time":"2022-04-19T02:39:31Z","timestamp":1650335971000},"page":"1934","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Seasonal and Interannual Variability of Tidal Mixing Signatures in Indonesian Seas from High-Resolution Sea Surface Temperature"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1495-5951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raden Dwi","family":"Susanto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}]},{"given":"Richard D.","family":"Ray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Siedler, G., Church, J., and Gould, J. (2001). Ocean transport of heat. Ocean Circulation and Climate: Observing and Modelling the Global Ocean, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2188","article-title":"The Indonesian Seas and Their Role in the Coupled Ocean\u2013climate System","volume":"7","author":"Sprintall","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2438","article-title":"Pacific Origin of the Abrupt Increase in Indian Ocean Heat Content during the Warming Hiatus","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3427","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2002)015<3427:GASTTS>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Global Atmospheric Sensitivity to Tropical SST Anomalies Throughout the Indo-Pacific Basin","volume":"15","author":"Barsugli","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s10236-010-0374-3","article-title":"Mechanisms Controlling the Seasonal Mixed-Layer Temperature and Salinity of the Indonesian Seas","volume":"61","author":"Halkides","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ocean. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2905","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2003)016<2905:RBTMCH>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Relationships between the Maritime Continent Heat Source and the El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation Phenomenon","volume":"16","author":"McBride","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-009-0642-4","article-title":"Tidal mixing in the Indonesian Seas and its effect on the tropical climate system","volume":"34","author":"Lengaigne","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clim. Dynam."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2020.102312","article-title":"Spatial Structure of Turbulent Mixing Inferred from Historical CTD Datasets in the Indonesian Seas","volume":"184","author":"Purwandana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1992)022<0184:VMITIT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Vertical Mixing in the Indonesian Thermocline","volume":"22","author":"Ffield","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2005.11","article-title":"Indonesian Seas Fine-structure Variability","volume":"18","author":"Ffield","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"C09009","article-title":"Temperature fine structure in the Indonesian Seas","volume":"113","author":"Ffield","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dynatmoce.2010.02.004","article-title":"Tidal Currents and Mixing at the Instant Mooring Locations","volume":"50","author":"Robertson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dyn. Atmos. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00257","article-title":"Detecting Change in the Indonesian Seas","volume":"6","author":"Sprintall","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2021.104358","article-title":"Observation of Internal Tides, Nonlinear Internal Waves and Mixing in the Lombok Strait, Indonesia","volume":"216","author":"Purwandana","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1924","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1996)026<1924:TMSITI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Tidal Mixing Signatures in the Indonesian Seas","volume":"26","author":"Ffield","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8115","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL069485","article-title":"Tidal Mixing Signatures in the Indonesian Seas from High-Resolution Sea Surface Temperature Data","volume":"43","author":"Ray","year":"2016","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2741","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL002337","article-title":"Diapycnal Mixing in the Banda Sea: Results of the First Microstructure Measurements in the Indonesian Throughflow","volume":"26","author":"Alford","year":"1999","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2797","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-19-0326.1","article-title":"Hydraulics and mixing of the deep overflow in the LifamatolaPassage of the Indonesian seas","volume":"50","author":"Tan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020GL091731","DOI":"10.1029\/2020GL091731","article-title":"Direct estimates of turbulent mixing in the Indonesian archipelago and its role in the transformation of the Indonesian throughflow waters","volume":"48","author":"Nagai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2015.09.007","article-title":"Estimates of Tidal Mixing in the Indonesian Archipelago from Multidisciplinary Indomix in-Situ Data","volume":"106","author":"Atmadipoera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part I"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s40562-019-0135-1","article-title":"A Fortnightly Atmospheric \u2018tide\u2019 at Bali Caused by Oceanic Tidal Mixing in Lombok Strait","volume":"6","author":"Ray","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geoscience Letters"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2017.06.033","article-title":"Modelling Explicit Tides in the Indonesian Seas: An Important Process for Surface Sea Water Properties","volume":"131","author":"Nugroho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2005.07","article-title":"A Brief Overview of Tides in the Indonesian Seas","volume":"18","author":"Ray","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3373","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JC010592","article-title":"Internal Tides and Associated Vertical Mixing in the Indonesian Archipelago","volume":"120","author":"Nagai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pugh, D.T., and Woodworth, P.L. (2014). Sea Level Science: Understanding Tides, Surges, Tsunamis and Mean Sea-Level Changes, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139235778"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2005.05","article-title":"Sea Surface Temperature and Its Variability in the Indonesian Region","volume":"18","author":"Qu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C6","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JC005150","article-title":"Seasonal Sea Surface Temperature Variability in the Indonesian Seas","volume":"114","author":"Kida","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Susanto, R., Pan, J., and Devlin, A. (2018). Tidal Mixing Signatures in the Hong Kong Coastal Waters from Satellite-Derived Sea Surface Temperature. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11010005"},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Chin, T.M., Vazquez-Cuervo, J., and Armstrong, E.M. (2013). Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document: A Multi-Scale, High-Resolution Analysis of Global Sea Surface Temperature, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Version 1.3."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1126\/science.288.5467.847","article-title":"Satellite Measurements of Sea Surface Temperature through Clouds","volume":"288","author":"Wentz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-86-8-1097","article-title":"Global Microwave Satellite Observations of Sea Surface Temperature for Numerical Weather Prediction and Climate Research","volume":"86","author":"Chelton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-88-8-1197","article-title":"The Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment High-Resolution Sea Surface Temperature Pilot Project","volume":"88","author":"Donlon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2009.64","article-title":"The Godae High-Resolution Sea Surface Temperature Pilot Project","volume":"22","author":"Donlon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Remote Sensing Systems (2017). MWIR Optimum Interpolated SST Data Set, Version 5.0, Physical Oceanography DAAC (PO.DAAC), Jet Propulsion Laboratory."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.950","article-title":"Identification of Three Dominant Rainfall Regions Within Indonesia and Their Relationship to Sea Surface Temperature","volume":"23","author":"Aldrian","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"C09007","article-title":"The impact of the Indonesian throughflow and tidal mixing on the summer time sea surface temperature in the western Indonesian seas","volume":"117","author":"Kida","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JC016314","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JC016314","article-title":"Combined effects of tidal mixing in narrow straits and the Ekman transport on the sea surface temperature cooling in the southern Indonesian seas","volume":"125","author":"Nagai","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C7","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JC005257","article-title":"Direct Estimates of the Indonesian Throughflow Entering the Indian Ocean: 2004\u20132006","volume":"114","author":"Sprintall","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. C Ocean."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2021.103","article-title":"Moored Observations of Current and Temperature in the Alas Strait: Collected for Submarine Tailing Placement, Used for Calculating the Indonesian Throughflow","volume":"34","author":"Susanto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2009.06.004","article-title":"Characteristics and Variability of the Indonesian Throughflow Water at the Outflow Straits","volume":"56","author":"Atmadipoera","year":"2009","journal-title":"Deep. Sea Res. Part I"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2016.31","article-title":"Oceanography Surrounding Krakatau Volcano in the Sunda Strait, Indonesia","volume":"29","author":"Susanto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"C3","article-title":"Modeling and Energetics of Tidally Generated Wave Trains in the Lombok Strait: Impact of the Indonesian Throughflow","volume":"116","author":"Aiki","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17217","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JC900065","article-title":"A semi-annual Indian Ocean forced Kelvin waves observed in the Indonesian Seas, May 1997","volume":"105","author":"Sprintall","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1029\/2012GL052021","article-title":"South China Sea Throughflow Impact on the Indonesian Throughflow","volume":"39","author":"Gordon","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dynatmoce.2009.12.002","article-title":"The Indonesian Throughflow during 2004\u20132006 As Observed by the Instant Program","volume":"50","author":"Gordon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Dyn. Atmos. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C9","DOI":"10.1029\/2012JC008096","article-title":"Variability of Indonesian Throughflow Within Makassar Strait, 2004-2009","volume":"117","author":"Susanto","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8270","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC011351","article-title":"Interannual Variability of the Indonesian Throughflow Transport: A Revisit Based on 30 Year Expendable Bathythermograph Data","volume":"120","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40562-018-0102-2","article-title":"The Indonesian Throughflow, Its Variability and Centennial Change","volume":"5","author":"Feng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1007\/s10872-018-0475-z","article-title":"Coastal Upwelling Events along the Southern Coast of Java during the 2008 Positive Indian Ocean Dipole","volume":"74","author":"Horii","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1038\/43854","article-title":"A Dipole Mode in the Tropical Indian Ocean","volume":"401","author":"Saji","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1599","DOI":"10.1029\/2000GL011844","article-title":"Upwelling along the coasts of Java and Sumatra sand its relation to ENSO","volume":"28","author":"Susanto","year":"2001","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Letters."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"Q05021","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GC001009","article-title":"Ocean color variability in the Indonesian Seas during the SeaWiFS era","volume":"7","author":"Susanto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2005.13","article-title":"Effect of the 1997\/98 El Ni\u00f1o on Chlorophyll a Variability along the Southern Coasts of Java and Sumatra","volume":"18","author":"Susanto","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2020.103451","article-title":"Impacts of Climate Changes on the Phytoplankton Biomass of the Indonesian Maritime Continent","volume":"212","author":"Siswanto","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1038\/43848","article-title":"Coupled oceanic-atmospheric dynamics in the Indian Ocean during 1997\u201398","volume":"401","author":"Webster","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2005.08","article-title":"Ocean Internal Waves Observed in the Lombok Strait","volume":"18","author":"Susanto","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6119","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2904402","article-title":"Oceanic Internal Waves in the Sulu\u2013celebes Sea Under Sunglint and Moonglint","volume":"57","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Jackson, C.R., and Apel, J.R. (2004). An Atlas of Internal Solitary-Like Waves and Their Properties, Global Ocean Associates."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL037314","article-title":"Mindoro Strait and Sibutu Passage Transports Estimated from Satellite Data","volume":"36","author":"Qu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1023\/B:JOCE.0000038350.32155.cb","article-title":"Transformation of the Indonesian Throughflow Water by Vertical Mixing and Its Relation to Tidally Generated Internal Waves","volume":"60","author":"Hatayama","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C5","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JC006403","article-title":"Monsoon Regulation of Lombok Strait Internal Waves","volume":"116","author":"Matthews","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/8\/1934\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:55:27Z","timestamp":1760136927000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/8\/1934"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,16]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14081934"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14081934","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,16]]}}}