{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T15:25:36Z","timestamp":1767713136063,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,19]],"date-time":"2022-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1650326400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Evaluating the spatial and temporal model performance of distributed hydrological models is necessary to ensure that the simulated spatial and temporal patterns are meaningful. In recent years, spatial and temporal remote sensing data have been increasingly used for model performance evaluation. Previous studies, however, have focused on either the temporal or spatial model performance evaluation. In addition, temporal (or spatial) model performance evaluation is often conducted in a spatially (or temporally) lumped approach. Here, we evaluated (1) the temporal model performance evaluation in a spatially distributed approach (spatiotemporal) and (2) the spatial model performance in a temporally distributed approach (temporospatial). We further demonstrated that both spatiotemporal and temporospatial model performance evaluations are necessary since they provide different aspects of the model performance. For this, a case study was developed using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) for the Upper Baitarani catchment in India, and the spatiotemporal and temporospatial model performance was evaluated against three different remotely based actual evapotranspiration (ETa) products (MOD16 A2, SSEBop, and TerraClimate). The results showed that an increase in the spatiotemporal model performance would not necessarily lead to an increase in the temporospatial model performance and vice versa, depending on the evaluation statistics. Overall, this study has highlighted the necessity of a joint spatiotemporal and temporospatial model performance evaluation to understand\/improve spatial and temporal model behavior\/performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14091959","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,20]],"date-time":"2022-04-20T00:22:43Z","timestamp":1650414163000},"page":"1959","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["On the Evaluation of Both Spatial and Temporal Performance of Distributed Hydrological Models Using Remote Sensing Products"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9111-4393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tam V.","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Hydrogeology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), 04318 Leipzig, Germany"}]},{"given":"Bhumika","family":"Uniyal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Professorship of Ecological Services, Bayreuth Center of Ecology and Environmental Research, Bayreuth University, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany"}]},{"given":"Dang An","family":"Tran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Water Resources Engineering, Thuyloi University, 175 Tay Son, Dong Da, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam"}]},{"given":"Thi Bich Thuc","family":"Pham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Applied Mechanics and Informatics, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 291 Dien Bien Phu Street, Ward 7, District 3, Ho Chi Minh City 70000, Vietnam"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4529","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-13-4529-2021","article-title":"Large-Sample Data for Hydrology and Environmental Sciences for Central Europe","volume":"13","author":"Klingler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Earth Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.12.039","article-title":"Catchment Scale Soil Moisture Spatial-Temporal Variability","volume":"422\u2013423","author":"Brocca","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W02507","DOI":"10.1029\/2003WR002306","article-title":"Identifying and Quantifying Sources of Variability in Temporal and Spatial Soil Moisture Observations","volume":"40","author":"Wilson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0088(20000330)20:4<381::AID-JOC477>3.0.CO;2-K","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Potential Evapotranspiration Trends over China","volume":"20","author":"Thomas","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-001-0179-z","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Groundwater Recharge in Northern Nigeria","volume":"10","author":"Edmunds","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Neitsch, S., Arnold, J., Kiniry, J., and Williams, J. (2011). Soil & Water Assessment Tool Theoretical Documentation Version 2009, Texas Water Resources Institute. Available online: https:\/\/swat.tamu.edu\/media\/99192\/swat2009-theory.pdf."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-1688.1998.tb05961.x","article-title":"Large Area Hydrologic Modeling and Assessment Part I: Model Development","volume":"34","author":"Arnold","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667909491834","article-title":"A Physically Based, Variable Contributing Area Model of Basin Hydrology","volume":"24","author":"Beven","year":"1979","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14415","DOI":"10.1029\/94JD00483","article-title":"A Simple Hydrologically Based Model of Land Surface Water and Energy Fluxes for General Circulation Models","volume":"99","author":"Liang","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1029\/2012WR012195","article-title":"Implications of Distributed Hydrologic Model Parameterization on Water Fluxes at Multiple Scales and Locations","volume":"49","author":"Kumar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W05523","DOI":"10.1029\/2008WR007327","article-title":"Multiscale Parameter Regionalization of a Grid-Based Hydrologic Model at the Mesoscale","volume":"46","author":"Samaniego","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2693","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.6061","article-title":"Use of Multi-Platform, Multi-Temporal Remote-Sensing Data for Calibration of a Distributed Hydrological Model: An Application in the Arno Basin, Italy","volume":"20","author":"Campo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advwatres.2020.103667","article-title":"Potential of Satellite and Reanalysis Evaporation Datasets for Hydrological Modelling under Various Model Calibration Strategies","volume":"143","author":"Ceperley","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Water Resour."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2017.11.009","article-title":"Evaluating the Role of Evapotranspiration Remote Sensing Data in Improving Hydrological Modeling Predictability","volume":"556","author":"Herman","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2007.11.017","article-title":"Calibration of a Distributed Hydrological Model Based on Satellite Evapotranspiration","volume":"349","author":"Immerzeel","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, L., Wu, H., Tao, J., Kimball, J.S., Alfieri, L., and Chen, X. (2020). Satellite-Based Evapotranspiration in Hydrological Model Calibration. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030428"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-11-1873-2018","article-title":"The SPAtial EFficiency Metric (SPAEF): Multiple-Component Evaluation of Spatial Patterns for Optimization of Hydrological Models","volume":"11","author":"Koch","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geosci. Model Dev."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5987","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-21-5987-2017","article-title":"Spatial Pattern Evaluation of a Calibrated National Hydrological Model\u2014A Remote-Sensing-Based Diagnostic Approach","volume":"21","author":"Mendiguren","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-23-1113-2019","article-title":"Multi-Site Calibration and Validation of SWAT with Satellite-Based Evapotranspiration in a Data-Sparse Catchment in Southwestern Nigeria","volume":"23","author":"Odusanya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2018.10.024","article-title":"Hydrologic Model Predictability Improves with Spatially Explicit Calibration Using Remotely Sensed Evapotranspiration and Biophysical Parameters","volume":"567","author":"Rajib","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2013.10.006","article-title":"Multi-Variable Calibration of a Semi-Distributed Hydrological Model Using Streamflow Data and Satellite-Based Evapotranspiration","volume":"505","author":"Rientjes","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2654","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.13177","article-title":"Moving beyond Run-off Calibration\u2014Multivariable Optimization of a Surface\u2013Subsurface\u2013Atmosphere Model","volume":"32","author":"Stisen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104606","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2019.104606","article-title":"Modeling Interbasin Groundwater Flow in Karst Areas: Model Development, Application, and Calibration Strategy","volume":"124","author":"Nguyen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Model. Softw."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020WR028490","DOI":"10.1029\/2020WR028490","article-title":"Modeling Nitrate Export From a Mesoscale Catchment Using StorAge Selection Functions","volume":"57","author":"Nguyen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-1694(70)90255-6","article-title":"River Flow Forecasting through Conceptual Models Part I\u2014A Discussion of Principles","volume":"10","author":"Nash","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2009.08.003","article-title":"Decomposition of the Mean Squared Error and NSE Performance Criteria: Implications for Improving Hydrological Modelling","volume":"377","author":"Gupta","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1175\/2007MWR2123.1","article-title":"Scale-Selective Verification of Rainfall Accumulations from High-Resolution Forecasts of Convective Events","volume":"136","author":"Roberts","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1225","DOI":"10.1002\/2014WR016607","article-title":"Toward a True Spatial Model Evaluation in Distributed Hydrological Modeling: Kappa Statistics, Fuzzy Theory, and EOF-Analysis Benchmarked by the Human Perception and Evaluated against a Modeling Case Study","volume":"51","author":"Koch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Mu, Q., Zhao, M., and Running, S.W. (2022, April 17). MODIS Global Terrestrial Evapotranspiration (ET) Product (MOD16A2\/A3); Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document Collection 5, Available online: https:\/\/modis-land.gsfc.nasa.gov\/pdf\/MOD16ATBD.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1111\/jawr.12057","article-title":"Operational Evapotranspiration Mapping Using Remote Sensing and Weather Datasets: A New Parameterization for the SSEB Approach","volume":"49","author":"Senay","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170191","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.191","article-title":"TerraClimate, a High-Resolution Global Dataset of Monthly Climate and Climatic Water Balance from 1958\u20132015","volume":"5","author":"Abatzoglou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2018.08.248","article-title":"Simulation of Regional Irrigation Requirement with SWAT in Different Agro-Climatic Zones Driven by Observed Climate and Two Reanalysis Datasets","volume":"649","author":"Uniyal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4302","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.5086","article-title":"WorldClim 2: New 1-Km Spatial Resolution Climate Surfaces for Global Land Areas","volume":"37","author":"Fick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.1276","article-title":"Very High Resolution Interpolated Climate Surfaces for Global Land Areas","volume":"25","author":"Hijmans","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.3711","article-title":"Updated High-Resolution Grids of Monthly Climatic Observations\u2014The CRU TS3.10 Dataset","volume":"34","author":"Harris","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj.2015-001","article-title":"The JRA-55 Reanalysis: General Specifications and Basic Characteristics","volume":"93","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-20-1459-2016","article-title":"Global Root Zone Storage Capacity from Satellite-Based Evaporation","volume":"20","author":"Bastiaanssen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.5611","article-title":"SWAT2000: Current Capabilities and Research Opportunities in Applied Watershed Modelling","volume":"19","author":"Arnold","year":"2005","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2008.02.024","article-title":"Development and Application of the Integrated SWAT-MODFLOW Model","volume":"356","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.11466","article-title":"Modification of the SWAT Model to Simulate Regional Groundwater Flow Using a Multicell Aquifer","volume":"32","author":"Nguyen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rafiei, V., Ghahramani, A., An-Vo, D.A., and Mushtaq, S. (2020). Modelling Hydrological Processes and Identifying Soil Erosion Sources in a Tropical Catchment of the Great Barrier Reef Using SWAT. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12082179"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"205","article-title":"Evaporation and Environment","volume":"19","author":"Monteith","year":"1965","journal-title":"Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9437(1986)112:4(348)","article-title":"A Penman for All Seasons","volume":"112","author":"Allen","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Irrig. Drain. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj1989.00021962008100040019x","article-title":"Operational Estimates of Reference Evapotranspiration","volume":"81","author":"Allen","year":"1989","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(1972)100<0081:OTAOSH>2.3.CO;2","article-title":"On the Assessment of Surface Heat Flux and Evaporation Using Large-Scale Parameters","volume":"100","author":"Priestley","year":"1972","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.13031\/2013.26773","article-title":"Reference Crop Evapotranspiration from Temperature","volume":"1","author":"Hargreaves","year":"1985","journal-title":"Appl. Eng. Agric."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Howell, T., and Evett, S.R. (2001). The Penman-Monteith Method."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2775","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-22-2775-2018","article-title":"Comparison of MODIS and SWAT Evapotranspiration over a Complex Terrain at Different Spatial Scales","volume":"22","author":"Abiodun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2006.08.001","article-title":"Sensitivity Analysis and Identification of the Best Evapotranspiration and Runoff Options for Hydrological Modelling in SWAT-2000","volume":"332","author":"Kannan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/9\/1959\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:56:41Z","timestamp":1760137001000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/9\/1959"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,19]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14091959"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14091959","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,19]]}}}