{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T11:26:53Z","timestamp":1775561213462,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]],"date-time":"2022-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651017600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["XDA19030105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA19030105"]}]},{"name":"Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["ZDKJ2019006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDKJ2019006"]}]},{"name":"Finance Science and Technology Project of Hainan Province","award":["XDA19030105"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA19030105"]}]},{"name":"Finance Science and Technology Project of Hainan Province","award":["ZDKJ2019006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ZDKJ2019006"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Geographically isolated islands are under great stress due to global climate change, as well as the social and environmental issues relating to human activities. It is necessary to monitor and analyze the spatial\u2013temporal changes of the land surface environment in species-rich tropical islands in order to realize the sustainable development and protection of island areas. In this study, we extracted the land cover and coastline information of three tropical islands from 1990 to 2020 based on the Google Earth Engine platform and the Random Forest algorithm. The results showed that: (1) different tropical islands have similar characteristics in terms of land surface environment changes, with the amount of artificial surface and cultivated land increasing, the forest and mangrove areas decreasing, and the amount of artificial coastline increasing; (2) human disturbance plays an important role in changes in the land surface environment. Population growth, immigration policies, food security, and human activities related to achieving economic profits are likely responsible for these land cover changes; and (3) the main factors driving coastline changes include natural processes (topography, ecological ecosystems, sea-level rise, sea waves, and storms) and human activities (sand mining, tourism, port construction, aquaculture expansion, and mangrove deforestation). Understanding these changes will help tropical islands and coastal zones to make suitable policies for land management and respond to climate change and sustainable development challenges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14092100","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]],"date-time":"2022-04-27T22:20:20Z","timestamp":1651098020000},"page":"2100","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Human Disturbance on the Land Surface Environment in Tropical Islands: A Remote Sensing Perspective"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8152-3732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tianmeng","family":"Fu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Earth Observation of Hainan Province, Sanya 572029, China"},{"name":"University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Earth Observation of Hainan Province, Sanya 572029, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6377-1094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bowei","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Earth Observation of Hainan Province, Sanya 572029, China"}]},{"given":"Min","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"International Research Center of Big Data for Sustainable Development Goals, Beijing 100094, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Earth Observation of Hainan Province, Sanya 572029, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1149345","article-title":"A Global Map of Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems","volume":"319","author":"Halpern","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2018.06.003","article-title":"Coastal Exposure of the Hawaiian Islands Using GIS-Based Index Modeling","volume":"163","author":"Onat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1007\/s12524-014-0426-0","article-title":"Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability Due to Sea Level Change at Bhola Island, Bangladesh: Using Geospatial Techniques","volume":"43","author":"Islam","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scardino, G., Sabatier, F., Scicchitano, G., Piscitelli, A., Milella, M., Vecchio, A., Anzidei, M., and Mastronuzzi, G. (2020). Sea-Level Rise and Shoreline Changes along an Open Sandy Coast: Case Study of Gulf of Taranto, Italy. Water, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/w12051414"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.margeo.2021.106556","article-title":"Comparing Impact Effects of Common Storms and Medicanes along the Coast of South-Eastern Sicily","volume":"439","author":"Scicchitano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar. Geol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2013.06.006","article-title":"Widespread Inundation of Pacific Islands Triggered by Distant-Source Wind-Waves","volume":"108","author":"Hoeke","year":"2013","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.09.016","article-title":"On the Vulnerability of Small Island Developing States: A Dynamic Analysis","volume":"84","author":"Scandurra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"UNEP (2014). Emerging Issues for Small Island Developing States, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Results of the UNEP\/UN DESA Foresight Process."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Zhang, X. (2014). Monitoring and Evaluation of Island Ecological Environment Based on Remote Sensing: A Case Study of the Zhoushan Islands. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Wuhan University]."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloplacha.2008.09.006","article-title":"Geo-Ecological Spatial Pattern Analysis of the Island of Fogo (Cape Verde)","volume":"64","author":"Olehowski","year":"2008","journal-title":"Glob. Planet. Chang."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.2112\/JCOASTRES-D-11-00008.1","article-title":"Shoreline Changes on an Urban Atoll in the Central Pacific Ocean: Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands","volume":"28","author":"Ford","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2012.01.004","article-title":"Spatio-Temporal Patterns in Vegetation Start of Season across the Island of Ireland Using the MERIS Global Vegetation Index","volume":"68","author":"Dwyer","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Li, Y. (2015). Change Detection and Analysis of Surface Coverage on Island and Reefs Via High Resolution Remote Sensing Image. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, Lanzhou Jiaotong University]."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-011-0394-4","article-title":"Shoreline Change Analysis along the Coast between Kanyakumari and Tuticorin of India Using Remote Sensing and GIS","volume":"6","author":"Mujabar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Zhang, L. (2015). Analysis Change on the Surface Coverage of Island Based on Object-Oriented-Take Tongpan Island as Example. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, Hangzhou Normal University]."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.2112\/JCOASTRES-D-13-00027.1","article-title":"Land-Cover Reconstruction and Change Analysis Using Multisource Remotely Sensed Imageries in Zhoushan Islands since 1970","volume":"30","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"1762","article-title":"Mapping and Monitoring of Land Use\/Land Cover Changes in Neil Island (South Andaman) Using Geospatial Approaches","volume":"44","author":"Mageswaran","year":"2015","journal-title":"Indian J. Geo-Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"587","article-title":"Classification of the Remotely Sensed Image for the Dongyu Island Based on Back-Propagation Neural Network","volume":"35","author":"Cao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105967","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2021.105967","article-title":"Southeast Asia Island Coastline Changes and Driving Forces from 1990 to 2015","volume":"215","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"66","article-title":"Extraction and Accuracy Evaluation of Multi-Temporal Coastlines of Main-Land China since 1940s","volume":"38","author":"Hou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2011.05.006","article-title":"Automatic Detection of Shoreline Change on Coastal Ramsar Wetlands of Turkey","volume":"38","author":"Kuleli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"625","article-title":"Coastline Extraction and Change Monitoring by Remote Sensing Technology in Qinhuangdao City","volume":"29","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Technol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Puissant, A., Lef\u00e8vre, S., and Weber, J. (2022, March 03). Coastline Extraction in VHR Imagery Using Mathematical Morphology with Spatial and Spectral Knowledge. SPRS Congress Beijing 2008. Available online: https:\/\/halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr\/halshs-00467552."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.031","article-title":"Google Earth Engine: Planetary-Scale Geospatial Analysis for Everyone","volume":"202","author":"Gorelick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2020, December 12). United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2020: The Next Frontier\u2014Human Development and the Anthropocene. Available online: Http:\/\/Hdr.Undp.Org\/En\/2020-Report."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"(2022, March 03). Joshua Calder\u2019s World Island Info-Largest Islands of the World. Available online: Http:\/\/Www.Worldislandinfo.Com\/LARGESTV1.Html."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"(2021, February 08). Sri Lanka Annual GDP at Current Prices and GDP Shares. Department of Census and Statistics, Available online: Www.Census.Gov.Lk."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1038\/514434c","article-title":"Open Access to Earth Land-Cover Map","volume":"514","author":"Jun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"866","article-title":"Remote Sensing Classification System of Land Use and Land Cover for Global Coastal Zone Considering Fine Classification of Wetlands","volume":"38","author":"Hou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trop. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2005.08.011","article-title":"Random Forests for Land Cover Classification","volume":"27","author":"Gislason","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random Forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1973.4309314","article-title":"Textural Features for Image Classification","volume":"SMC-3","author":"Haralick","year":"1973","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1791","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-016-5317-5","article-title":"Characteristics of Coastline Changes in Mainland China since the Early 1940s","volume":"59","author":"Hou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. China Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sui, L., Wang, J., Yang, X., and Wang, Z. (2020). Spatial-Temporal Characteristics of Coastline Changes in Indonesia from 1990 to 2018. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12083242"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67011","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-15111-x","article-title":"Urbanization, Informal Economy, and Ecological Footprint Quality in South Asia","volume":"28","author":"Qayyum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, M., Cheng, W., Zhou, C., Li, M., Huang, K., and Wang, N. (2018). Assessing Spatiotemporal Characteristics of Urbanization Dynamics in Southeast Asia Using Time Series of DMSP\/OLS Nighttime Light Data. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10010047"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"584","article-title":"A Global Analysis of Human Settlement in Coastal Zones","volume":"19","author":"Small","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neumann, B., Vafeidis, A.T., Zimmermann, J., and Nicholls, R.J. (2015). Future Coastal Population Growth and Exposure to Sea-Level Rise and Coastal Flooding\u2014A Global Assessment. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0118571"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2020.106847","article-title":"Exploration of Eco-Environment and Urbanization Changes in Coastal Zones: A Case Study in China over the Past 20 Years","volume":"119","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecol. Indic."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2018.01.171","article-title":"Increase in Disaster Risk Due to Inefficient Environmental Management, Land Use Policies and Relocation Policies. Case Studies from Sri Lanka","volume":"212","author":"Dissanayake","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solari, L., Ciampalini, A., Raspini, F., Bianchini, S., and Moretti, S. (2016). PSInSAR Analysis in the Pisa Urban Area (Italy): A Case Study of Subsidence Related to Stratigraphical Factors and Urbanization. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8020120"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1007\/s11769-018-0946-6","article-title":"Remote Sensing Data and SLEUTH Urban Growth Model: As Decision Support Tools for Urban Planning","volume":"28","author":"Kantakumar","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chin. Geogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-019-0340-0","article-title":"Direct and Indirect Loss of Natural Area from Urban Expansion","volume":"2","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.12865","article-title":"The Contribution of Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use Activities to Global Warming, 1990\u20132012","volume":"21","author":"Tubiello","year":"2015","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Teluguntla, P., Thenkabail, P.S., Xiong, J., Gumma, M.K., Giri, C., Milesi, C., Ozdogan, M., Congalton, R.G., and Tilton, J. (2015). Global Food Security Support Analysis Data at Nominal 1 Km (GFSAD1km) Derived from Remote Sensing in Support of Food Security in the Twenty-First Century: Current Achievements and Future Possibilities. Land Resources Monitoring, Modeling, and Mapping with Remote Sensing, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1080\/15481603.2019.1690780","article-title":"Agricultural Cropland Extent and Areas of South Asia Derived Using Landsat Satellite 30-m Time-Series Big-Data Using Random Forest Machine Learning Algorithms on the Google Earth Engine Cloud","volume":"57","author":"Gumma","year":"2020","journal-title":"GIScience Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1002\/ldr.570","article-title":"Shifting Cultivation in the Mountains of South and Southeast Asia: Regional Patterns and Factors Influencing the Change","volume":"14","author":"Rasul","year":"2003","journal-title":"Land Degrad. Dev."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"77","article-title":"Tropical Forest Monitoring, Combining Satellite and Social Data, to Inform Management and Livelihood Implications: Case Studies from Indonesian West Timor","volume":"16","author":"Fisher","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1654","DOI":"10.3390\/rs6021654","article-title":"A Review of Swidden Agriculture in Southeast Asia","volume":"6","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"18","article-title":"Characteristics of Mainland Shoreline Position Changes of Maritime Silk Road in the Early 21st Century","volume":"45","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2006.06.018","article-title":"Overcoming the Impacts of Aquaculture on the Coastal Zone","volume":"49","author":"Primavera","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1918","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15752-5","article-title":"Non-Linear Interaction Modulates Global Extreme Sea Levels, Coastal Flood Exposure, and Impacts","volume":"11","author":"Arns","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-020-04034-4","article-title":"On the Status and Mechanisms of Coastal Erosion in Marawila Beach, Sri Lanka","volume":"103","author":"Ratnayakage","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., and Hou, X. (2020). Characteristics of Coastline Changes on Southeast Asia Islands from 2000 to 2015. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12030519"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2022, March 01). Deforestation and Forest Degradation. Available online: Https:\/\/Www.Iucn.Org\/Resources\/Issues-Briefs\/Deforestation-and-Forest-Degradation."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-11-247-2014","article-title":"Change in Tropical Forest Cover of Southeast Asia from 1990 to 2010","volume":"11","author":"Stibig","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ranagalage, M., Gunarathna, M.H.J.P., Surasinghe, T.D., Dissanayake, D., Simwanda, M., Murayama, Y., Morimoto, T., Phiri, D., Nyirenda, V.R., and Premakantha, K.T. (2020). Multi-Decadal Forest-Cover Dynamics in the Tropical Realm: Past Trends and Policy Insights for Forest Conservation in Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. Forests, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/f11080836"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0165-0203.2004.00067.x","article-title":"Change in Vegetation Cover in East Timor, 1989\u20131999","volume":"28","author":"Bouma","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Resour. Forum"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"FAO (2022, March 03). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Main Report. Rome. Available online: Https:\/\/Doi.Org\/10.4060\/Ca9825en.","DOI":"10.4060\/ca9825en"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Sunderlin, W.D., and Resosudarmo, I.A.P. (1996). Rates and Causes of Deforestation in Indonesia: Towards a Resolution of the Ambiguities, CIFOR."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Contreras-Hermosilla, A., Fay, C., Thamrin, J., and Sembiring, S. (2022, March 03). Strengthening Forest Management in Indonesia through Land Tenure Reform: Issues and Framework Action. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldagroforestry.org\/publication\/strengthening-forest-management-indonesia-through-land-tenure-reform-issues-and."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1007\/s12524-016-0636-8","article-title":"Development of National Database on Long-Term Deforestation in Sri Lanka","volume":"45","author":"Manaswini","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1007\/s10460-009-9239-0","article-title":"The Shifting Ground of Swidden Agriculture on Palawan Island, the Philippines","volume":"27","author":"Dressler","year":"2010","journal-title":"Agric. Hum. Values"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1118387","article-title":"The Asian Tsunami: A Protective Role for Coastal Vegetation","volume":"310","author":"Danielsen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1126\/science.317.5834.41b","article-title":"A World Without Mangroves?","volume":"317","author":"Duke","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2014.01.020","article-title":"Distribution and Dynamics of Mangrove Forests of South Asia","volume":"148","author":"Giri","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.2112\/03-832A.1","article-title":"Pilot Study on the Erosion and Rehabilitation of a Mangrove Mud Coast","volume":"21","author":"Winterwerp","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Coast. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1007\/s10113-020-01637-2","article-title":"Does Mangrove Plantation Reduce Coastal Erosion? Assessment from the West Coast of India","volume":"20","author":"Das","year":"2020","journal-title":"Reg. Environ. Chang."},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Kauffman, J.B., and Donato, D.C. (2012). Protocols for the Measurement, Monitoring and Reporting of Structure, Biomass and Carbon Stocks in Mangrove Forests, CIFOR. Working Paper 86."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-environ-101718-033302","article-title":"The State of the World\u2019s Mangrove Forests: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"44","author":"Friess","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cornforth, W.A., Fatoyinbo, T.E., Freemantle, T.P., and Pettorelli, N. (2013). Advanced Land Observing Satellite Phased Array Type L-Band SAR (ALOS PALSAR) to Inform the Conservation of Mangroves: Sundarbans as a Case Study. Remote Sens., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5010224"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghina, F. (2005). Sustainable Development in Small Island Developing States: The Case of the Maldvies. The World Summit on Sustainable Development: The Johannesburg Conference, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-3653-1_8"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"UN-Habitat (2015). Urbanization and Climate Change in Small Island Developing States, UN-Habitat."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.habitatint.2007.06.005","article-title":"Sustainable Urban Form for Chinese Compact Cities: Challenges of a Rapid Urbanized Economy","volume":"32","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Habitat Int."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"UNDESA (2014). Trends in Sustainable Development Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Trends in Sustainable Development, UNDESA."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Nath, S., Roberts, J.L., and Madhoo, Y.N. (2010). Saving Small Island Developing States Environmental and Natural Resource Challenges, Commonwealth Secretariat."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anzidei, M., Scicchitano, G., Scardino, G., Bignami, C., Tolomei, C., Vecchio, A., Serpelloni, E., de Santis, V., Monaco, C., and Milella, M. (2021). Relative Sea-Level Rise Scenario for 2100 along the Coast of South Eastern Sicily (Italy) by Insar Data, Satellite Images and High-Resolution Topography. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-egu21-2889"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.775","article-title":"IPCC, 2001: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Edited by J. J. McCarthy, O. F. Canziani, N. A. Leary, D. J. Dokken","volume":"22","author":"Thornes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/9\/2100\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:02:06Z","timestamp":1760137326000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/9\/2100"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]]},"references-count":78,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14092100"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14092100","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]]}}}