{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T19:45:24Z","timestamp":1773431124362,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,29]],"date-time":"2022-04-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Oceans &amp; Coasts Research Branch of the South African Department of Forestry, Fisheries, and the Environment (DFFE)","award":["129229"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["129229"]}]},{"name":"Bayworld Centre for Research and Education (BCRE)","award":["129229"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["129229"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"South African National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["129229"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["129229"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>At the sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands (PEIs) in the Southern Ocean, the Island Mass Effect (IME) plays an important role in maintaining an ecosystem able to support diverse biological communities; however, limited in situ sampling has severely constrained our understanding of it. As such, our study used satellite chlorophyll a (chla) to provide the first detailed characterisation of the spatial extent and seasonal variability of the IME at the PEIs. Seasonal surface chla variations were remarkable, with localised increases observed from mid-austral spring to the end of autumn (October to May). In contrast, during June to September, there were no distinguishable differences between chla at the PEIs and that further afield. Seasonal chla changes were significantly correlated with higher light levels, warmer waters, and shallow upper mixed layer depths reflecting enhanced water column stability during summer and autumn, with the opposite pattern in winter and spring. The IME extended northeast of the islands and remained spatially distinct from elevated chla around the northern branch of the sub-Antarctic Front and the southern branch of the Antarctic Polar Front. From December to February, the IME was spatially connected to the island shelf. In contrast, during March\u2013May and in October, higher chla was observed only to the northeast, some distance away from the islands, suggesting a delayed IME, which has not previously been observed at the PEIs. The clear association of this higher chla with the weak mean geostrophic circulation northeast of the islands suggested retention and accumulation of nutrients and phytoplankton biomass, which was likely aided by wind-driven northeastward transport of water from the shelf. Climatological mean chla to the northeast was generally higher than that on the PEI shelf, and further research is required to determine the importance of this region to ecosystem functioning at the islands.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14092140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,2]],"date-time":"2022-05-02T07:08:58Z","timestamp":1651475338000},"page":"2140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Spatial and Seasonal Variations of the Island Mass Effect at the Sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands Archipelago"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8464-891X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tarron","family":"Lamont","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Oceans & Coasts Research, Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, P.O. Box 52126, Victoria & Alfred Waterfront, Cape Town 8000, South Africa"},{"name":"Bayworld Centre for Research & Education, 5 Riesling Road, Constantia, Cape Town 7806, South Africa"},{"name":"Oceanography Department and Marine Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa"}]},{"given":"Tesha","family":"Toolsee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oceanography Department and Marine Research Institute, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2017.00040","article-title":"Southern Ocean phytoplankton in a changing climate","volume":"4","author":"Deppeler","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592027","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2021.592027","article-title":"Evidence for the impact of climate change on primary producers in the Southern Ocean","volume":"9","author":"Pinkerton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-marine-010419-011028","article-title":"Antarctic Futures: An assessment of climate-driven changes in ecosystem structure, function, and service provisioning in the Southern Ocean","volume":"12","author":"Rogers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02127","article-title":"High-latitude controls of thermocline nutrients and low latitude biological productivity","volume":"427","author":"Sarmiento","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"C08004","article-title":"Primary production in the Southern Ocean, 1997\u20132006","volume":"113","author":"Arrigo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2017.03.030","article-title":"Nutrients that limit growth in the ocean","volume":"27","author":"Bristow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"C02015","article-title":"Phytoplankton and light limitation in the Southern Ocean: Learning from high-nutrient, high-chlorophyll areas","volume":"115","author":"Venables","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-21122-6","article-title":"Manganese co-limitation of phytoplankton growth and major nutrient drawdown in the Southern Ocean","volume":"12","author":"Browning","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2015.05.007","article-title":"Inferring source regions and supply mechanisms of iron in the Southern Ocean from satellite chlorophyll data","volume":"104","author":"Graham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. I"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-7963(02)00196-3","article-title":"Surface chlorophyll concentrations in relation to the Antarctic Polar Front: Seasonal and spatial patterns from satellite observations","volume":"37","author":"Moore","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"C07030","article-title":"On the relationship between fronts and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and surface chlorophyll concentrations in the Southern Ocean","volume":"112","author":"Sokolov","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00441765","article-title":"Observations of the island mass effect in the Prince Edward archipelago","volume":"9","author":"Boden","year":"1988","journal-title":"Polar Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10581","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms10581","article-title":"Near-island biological hotspots in barren ocean basins","volume":"7","author":"Gove","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gove, J.M., Williams, G.J., McManus, M.A., Heron, S.F., Sandin, S.A., Vetter, O.J., and Foley, D.G. (2013). Quantifying climatological ranges and anomalies for Pacific coral reef ecosystems. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0061974"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"25","article-title":"Dynamic seasonal cycling of inorganic carbon downstream of South Georgia, Southern Ocean","volume":"59\u201360","author":"Jones","year":"2012","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. II"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.26749\/rstpp.141.1.35","article-title":"Origin and evolution of the sub-Antarctic islands: The foundation","volume":"141","author":"Quilty","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chown, S.L., and Froneman, P.W. (2008). Oceanographic setting of the Prince Edward Islands. The Prince Edward Islands: Land-Sea Interactions in a Changing Ecosystem, Sun Press.","DOI":"10.18820\/9781928357063"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Whitehead, O., von der Meden, C., Skowno, A.L., Sink, K.J., van der Merwe, S., Adams, R., and Holness, S. (2019). South African National Biodiversity Assessment 2018 Technical Report Volume 6: Sub-Antarctic Territory, South African National Biodiversity Institute. Available online: http:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/20.500.12143\/6375."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirkman, S.P., Yemane, D.G., Lamont, T., Me\u00ffer, M.A., and Pistorius, P.A. (2016). Foraging behaviour of Subantarctic Fur Seals supports efficiency of a marine reserve\u2019s design. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0152370"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-7963(97)00112-7","article-title":"The Prince Edward Islands pelagic ecosystem: A review of achievements 1976\u20131990","volume":"18","author":"Pakhomov","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1007\/s002270050566","article-title":"Macroplankton\/micronekton dynamics in the vicinity of the Prince Edward Islands (Southern Ocean)","volume":"134","author":"Pakhomov","year":"1999","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3354\/meps080015","article-title":"Land-based predator impact on vertically migrating zooplankton and micronekton advected to a Southern Ocean archipelago","volume":"80","author":"Perissinotto","year":"1992","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chown, S.L., and Froneman, P.W. (2008). Pelagic predators. The Prince Edward Islands: Land-Sea Interactions in a Changing Ecosystem, Sun Press.","DOI":"10.18820\/9781928357063"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2171","DOI":"10.1007\/s00300-017-2132-1","article-title":"Long-term change in epibenthic assemblages at the Prince Edward Islands: A comparison between 1988 and 2013","volume":"40","author":"Atkinson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Polar Biol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1163\/221160003X00140","article-title":"The Prince Edward Islands: Southern Ocean Oasis","volume":"17","author":"Pakhomov","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ocean Yearb."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chown, S.L., and Froneman, P.W. (2008). Biology in the oceanographic environment. The Prince Edward Islands: Land-Sea Interactions in a Changing Ecosystem, Sun Press.","DOI":"10.18820\/9781928357063"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.2989\/02577618909504569","article-title":"Physical and chemical marine environment of the Prince Edward Islands (Southern Ocean) during April\/May 1987","volume":"8","author":"Rae","year":"1989","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2019.03.001","article-title":"Impact of deep-ocean eddies and fronts on the shelf seas of a sub-Antarctic Archipelago: The Prince Edward Islands","volume":"177","author":"Lamont","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/0198-0149(90)90006-H","article-title":"Occurrence of anti-cyclonic eddies on the Prince Edward Plateau (Southern Ocean): Effects on phytoplankton biomass and production","volume":"37","author":"Perissinotto","year":"1990","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. I"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.3354\/meps060205","article-title":"Vertical stability as a controlling factor of the marine phytoplankton production at the Prince Edward Archipelago (Southern Ocean)","volume":"60","author":"Perissinotto","year":"1990","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-7963(00)00041-5","article-title":"Temporal variability in the physico-biological environment of the Prince Edward Islands (Southern Ocean)","volume":"26","author":"Pakhomov","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103669","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2021.103669","article-title":"Phytoplankton biomass and photophysiology at the sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands ecosystem in the Southern Ocean","volume":"226","author":"Lamont","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2007.06.007","article-title":"Entrainment of Antarctic euphausiids across the Antarctic Polar Front by a cold eddy","volume":"54","author":"Bernard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. I"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1007\/s003000000125","article-title":"Variability in the inter-island environment of the Prince Edward Islands (Southern Ocean)","volume":"23","author":"Pakhomov","year":"2000","journal-title":"Polar Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2020.104309","article-title":"Mesoscale eddies influencing the sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands Archipelago: Temporal variability and impact","volume":"212","author":"Lamont","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-7963(99)00093-7","article-title":"Biological-physical interactions and pelagic productivity at the Prince Edward Islands, Southern Ocean","volume":"24","author":"Perissinotto","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-7963(02)00243-9","article-title":"Eddies originating at the South-West Indian Ridge","volume":"39","author":"Ansorge","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L14603","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL022588","article-title":"Direct observations of eddy turbulence at a ridge in the Southern Ocean","volume":"32","author":"Ansorge","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.4102\/sajs.v107i11\/12.673","article-title":"Decay of eddies at the South-West Indian Ridge","volume":"107","author":"Durgadoo","year":"2011","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954102010000088","article-title":"Oceanographic observations of eddies impacting the Prince Edward Islands, South Africa","volume":"22","author":"Durgadoo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Antarct. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csr.2020.104257","article-title":"Mesoscale eddies influencing the sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands Archipelago: Origin, Pathways, and Characteristics","volume":"210","author":"Lamont","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s003000050344","article-title":"Physical-biological coupling in the waters surrounding the Prince Edward Islands (Southern Ocean)","volume":"21","author":"Ansorge","year":"1999","journal-title":"Polar Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.26749\/rstpp.143.1.15","article-title":"Dynamics of physical and biological systems of the Prince Edward Islands in a changing climate","volume":"143","author":"Ansorge","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tasmania"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Cruzado, A. (2011). The marine ecosystem of the sub-Antarctic, Prince Edward Islands. Marine Ecosystems, InTech Press."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-7963(02)00198-7","article-title":"The hydrography and dynamics of the ocean environment of the Prince Edward Islands (Southern Ocean)","volume":"37","author":"Ansorge","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4140","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.11949","article-title":"Plankton community composition and productivity near the Subantarctic Prince Edward Islands archipelago in autumn","volume":"66","author":"Stirnimann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.11035","article-title":"Influence of oceanographic variability on near-shore microbial communities of the sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands","volume":"64","author":"Venkatachalam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chown, S.L., and Froneman, P.W. (2008). The Prince Edward Islands: Land-Sea Interactions in a Changing Ecosystem, Sun Press.","DOI":"10.18820\/9781928357063"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.2989\/1814232X.2021.1873858","article-title":"Characterising the seasonal cycle of wind forcing, surface circulation and temperature around the sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands","volume":"43","author":"Toolsee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Afr. J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5016","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL072428","article-title":"Delineating environmental control of phytoplankton biomass and phenology in the Southern Ocean","volume":"44","author":"Ardyna","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.09.038","article-title":"Seasonal variation in remotely-sensed phytoplankton size structure around southern Africa","volume":"204","author":"Lamont","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"880","article-title":"Seasonality and scale of the Kergeulen plateau phytoplankton bloom: A remote sensing and modelling analysis of the influence of natural iron fertilization in the Southern Ocean","volume":"55","author":"Mongin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. II"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2849","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-8-2849-2011","article-title":"Regional scale characteristics of the seasonal cycle of chlorophyll in the Southern Ocean","volume":"8","author":"Thomalla","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6034","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL083163","article-title":"Is the Southern Ocean getting greener?","volume":"46","author":"Signorini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1080\/01431160903547940","article-title":"Blending of ocean colour algorithms applied to the Southern Ocean","volume":"1","author":"Kahru","year":"2010","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.5194\/os-15-819-2019","article-title":"The CMEMS GlobColour chlorophyll a product based on satellite observation: Multi-sensor merging and flagging strategies","volume":"15","author":"Garnesson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sathyendranath, S., Brewin, R.J.W., Brockmann, C., Brotas, V., Calton, B., Chuprin, A., Cipollini, P., Couto, A.B., Dingle, J., and Doerffer, R. (2019). An Ocean-Colour time series for use in climate studies: The experience of the Ocean-Colour Climate Change Initiative (OC-CCI). Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19194285"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2907","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL059835","article-title":"Large-scale impact of the island mass effect through nitrogen fixation in the western South Pacific Ocean","volume":"41","author":"Shiozaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1007\/s11707-016-0561-8","article-title":"Satellite remote sensing of the island mass effect on the Sub-Antarctic Kerguelen Plateau, Southern Ocean","volume":"10","author":"Jena","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L18307","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL020682","article-title":"Island mass effect in the Marquesas Islands: Time variation","volume":"31","author":"Martinez","year":"2004","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Ocean Ecology Laboratory, Ocean Biology Processing Group (2021, August 25). Sea-Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS) Photosynthetically Available Radiation Data, Available online: https:\/\/oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov\/data\/10.5067\/ORBVIEW-2\/SEAWIFS\/L3M\/PAR\/2018\/."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Ocean Ecology Laboratory, Ocean Biology Processing Group (2018). Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Aqua Photosynthetically Available Radiation Data, NASA OB.DAAC. 2018 Reprocessing."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Mishonov, A. (2019). World Ocean Atlas 2018. Vol. 4: Dissolved Inorganic Nutrients (Phosphate, Nitrate and Nitrate + Nitrite, Silicate), NOAA Atlas NESDIS."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.5194\/os-15-1207-2019","article-title":"DUACS DT2018: 25 years of reprocessed sea level altimetry records","volume":"15","author":"Taburet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8919","DOI":"10.1002\/2014GL061773","article-title":"Beyond GOCE for the ocean circulation estimate: Synergetic use of altimetry, gravimetry, and in situ data provides new insight into geostrophic and Ekman currents","volume":"41","author":"Rio","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"C11018","article-title":"Circumpolar structure and distribution of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current fronts: 1. Mean circumpolar paths","volume":"114","author":"Sokolov","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"C11019","article-title":"Circumpolar structure and distribution of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current fronts: 2. Variability and relationship to sea surface height","volume":"114","author":"Sokolov","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Good, S., Fiedler, E., Mao, C., Martin, M.J., Maycock, A., Reid, R., Roberts-Jones, J., Searle, T., Waters, J., and While, J. (2020). The current configuration of the OSTIA system for operational production of foundation sea surface temperature and ice concentration analyses. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12040720"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Biavati, G., Hor\u00e1nyi, A., Mu\u00f1oz Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., and Rozum, I. (2021, January 20). ERA5 hourly Data on Pressure Levels from 1979 to Present. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). Available online: https:\/\/cds.climate.copernicus.eu\/cdsapp#!\/dataset\/10.24381\/cds.bd0915c6?tab=overview."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1742","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1990)020<1742:TMACIG>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The mean annual cycle in global ocean wind stress","volume":"20","author":"Trenberth","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2379","DOI":"10.1175\/2008JPO3881.1","article-title":"A global climatology of surface wind and wind stress fields from eight years of QuikSCAT scatterometer data","volume":"38","author":"Risien","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5618","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GL073426","article-title":"An Argo mixed layer climatology and database","volume":"44","author":"Holte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.5194\/os-15-779-2019","article-title":"The ECMWF operational ensemble reanalysis\u2013analysis system for ocean and sea ice: A description of the system and assessment","volume":"15","author":"Zuo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.5194\/os-9-57-2013","article-title":"Evaluation of global monitoring and forecasting systems at Mercator Oc\u00e9an","volume":"9","author":"Lellouche","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2673","article-title":"Evaluation of the CMCC eddy-permitting global ocean physical reanalysis system (C-GLORS, 1982-2012) and its assimilation components","volume":"142","author":"Storto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2396","article-title":"Global seasonal forecast system version 5 (GloSea5): A high-resolution seasonal forecast system","volume":"141","author":"MacLachlan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.3354\/meps07525","article-title":"Magnitude and maintenance of the phytoplankton bloom at South Georgia: A naturally iron-replete environment","volume":"368","author":"Korb","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"1949","article-title":"Physical conditions controlling the development of a regular phytoplankton bloom north of the Crozet Plateau, Southern Ocean","volume":"54","author":"Venables","year":"2007","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. II"},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"C05007","article-title":"Climate variability at Marion Island, Southern Ocean, since 1960","volume":"110","author":"Rouault","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0182-3","article-title":"The global influence of localized dynamics in the Southern Ocean","volume":"558","author":"Rintoul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.3354\/meps216279","article-title":"South Georgia, Antarctica: A productive, cold water, pelagic ecosystem","volume":"216","author":"Atkinson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"99","article-title":"SeaWiFS in the Southern Ocean: Spatial and temporal variability in phytoplankton biomass around South Georgia","volume":"51","author":"Korb","year":"2004","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. II"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28709","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JC000043","article-title":"Phytoplankton chlorophyll distributions and primary production in the Southern Ocean","volume":"105","author":"Moore","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2006.04.019","article-title":"Apparent phytoplankton bloom due to island mass effect","volume":"69","author":"Hasegawa","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L20605","DOI":"10.1029\/2009GL039743","article-title":"How islands cause phytoplankton to bloom in their wakes","volume":"36","author":"Hasegawa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019GL085282","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL085282","article-title":"The delayed Island Mass Effect: How islands can remotely trigger blooms in the oligotrophic ocean","volume":"47","author":"Petrenko","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7139","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05700","article-title":"Effect of natural iron fertilization on carbon sequestration in the Southern Ocean","volume":"446","author":"Blain","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2014.06.002","article-title":"The seasonal cycle of mixed layer dynamics and phytoplankton biomass in the Sub-Antarctic Zone: A high-resolution glider experiment","volume":"147","author":"Swart","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5364","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19157-2","article-title":"Seasonal modulation of phytoplankton biomass in the Southern Ocean","volume":"11","author":"Arteaga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020GL088369","DOI":"10.1029\/2020GL088369","article-title":"Resource colimitation drives competition between phytoplankton and bacteria in the Southern Ocean","volume":"48","author":"Ratnarajah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05317","article-title":"Climate-driven trends in contemporary ocean productivity","volume":"444","author":"Behrenfeld","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09268","article-title":"Global phytoplankton decline over the past century","volume":"466","author":"Boyce","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L03606","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GL021808","article-title":"Recent trends in global ocean chlorophyll","volume":"32","author":"Gregg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s00343-020-9121-x","article-title":"Quantification of the impact of environmental factors on chlorophyll in the open ocean","volume":"39","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Oceanol. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14624","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-33057-y","article-title":"Global patterns of change and variation in sea surface temperature and chlorophyll a","volume":"8","author":"Dunstan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GB005216","article-title":"Contrasting correlation patterns between environmental factors and chlorophyll levels in the global ocean","volume":"29","author":"Feng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Global Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"GB3003","DOI":"10.1029\/2003GB002134","article-title":"Response of ocean ecosystems to climate warming","volume":"18","author":"Sarmiento","year":"2004","journal-title":"Global Biogeochem. Cycles"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2811","article-title":"Physiological responses of a Southern Ocean diatom to complex future ocean conditions","volume":"6","author":"Boyd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954102020000401","article-title":"Extreme summer marine heatwaves increase chlorophyll a in the Southern Ocean","volume":"32","author":"Montie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antarct. Sci."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chown, S.L., and Froneman, P.W. (2008). 2008. Nutrient dynamics in the vicinity of the Prince Edward Islands. The Prince Edward Islands: Land-Sea Interactions in a Changing Ecosystem, Sun Press.","DOI":"10.18820\/9781928357063"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5827","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-11-5827-2014","article-title":"Seasonal evolution of net and regenerated silica production around a natural Fe-fertilized area in the Southern Ocean estimated with Si isotopic approaches","volume":"11","author":"Closset","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"1915","article-title":"Large-scale circulation around the Crozet Plateau controls an annual phytoplankton bloom in the Crozet Basin","volume":"54","author":"Pollard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. II"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsr.2020.103340","article-title":"Temporal variability in the trophic composition of benthic invertebrates in the Indian sub-Antarctic Ocean","volume":"163","author":"Puccinelli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. I"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00776","article-title":"Microbial competition in the subpolar Southern Ocean: An Fe-C co-limitation experiment","volume":"6","author":"Fourquez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"1999","article-title":"Dissolved iron in the vicinity of the Crozet Islands, Southern Ocean","volume":"54","author":"Planquette","year":"2007","journal-title":"Deep-Sea Res. II"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JC010203","article-title":"Southern Ocean wind-driven entrainment enhances satellite chlorophyll-a through the summer","volume":"120","author":"Carranza","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"C12040","article-title":"Global correlations between winds and ocean chlorophyll","volume":"115","author":"Kahru","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019GL085992","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL085992","article-title":"Relaxation of wind stress drives the abrupt onset of biological carbon uptake in the Kergeulen bloom: A multisensory approach","volume":"47","author":"Pellichero","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2835","DOI":"10.1002\/lno.11555","article-title":"Marked spatiotemporal variations in small phytoplankton structure in contrasted waters of the Southern Ocean (Kerguelen area)","volume":"65","author":"Irion","year":"2020","journal-title":"Limnol. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3133","DOI":"10.1002\/grl.50542","article-title":"Overturning circulation driven by breaking internal waves in the deep ocean","volume":"40","author":"Nikurashin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6053","DOI":"10.1029\/2017JC013628","article-title":"The unusual surface chlorophyll signatures of Southern Ocean eddies","volume":"123","author":"Dawson","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4781","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-15-4781-2018","article-title":"Imprint of Southern Ocean mesoscale eddies on chlorophyll","volume":"15","author":"Frenger","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/9\/2140\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:04:08Z","timestamp":1760137448000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/9\/2140"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,29]]},"references-count":112,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14092140"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14092140","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,29]]}}}