{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T19:57:09Z","timestamp":1770494229103,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,8]],"date-time":"2022-05-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651968000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Foundation of Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province","award":["AHL2021QN02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AHL2021QN02"]}]},{"name":"Foundation of Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province","award":["CXJJ-21S028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXJJ-21S028"]}]},{"name":"Foundation of Key Laboratory of Science and Technology Innovation of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["AHL2021QN02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AHL2021QN02"]}]},{"name":"Foundation of Key Laboratory of Science and Technology Innovation of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["CXJJ-21S028"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CXJJ-21S028"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Optical turbulence strongly affects different types of optoelectronic and adaptive optics systems. Systematic direct measurements of optical turbulence profiles [Cn2(h)] are lacking for many climates and seasons, particularly in marine environments, because it is impractical and expensive to deploy instrumentation. Here, a backpropagation neural network optimized using a genetic algorithm (GA-BP) is developed to estimate atmospheric turbulence profiles in marine environments which is validated against corresponding [Cn2(h)] profile datasets from a field campaign of balloon-borne microthermal measurements at the Haikou marine environment site. Overall, the trend and magnitude of the GA-BP model and measurements agree. The [Cn2(h)] profiles from the GA-BP model are generally superior to those obtained by BP and the physically-based (HMNSP99) models. Several statistical operators were used to quantify the GA-BP model performance on reconstructing the optical turbulence profiles in marine environments. The characterization of vertical distributions of optical turbulence profiles and the main integral parameters derived from [Cn2(h)] profiles are presented. The median Fried parameter, isoplanatic angle, and coherence time are 9.94 cm, 0.69\u2033, and 2.85 ms, respectively, providing independent optical turbulence parameters for adaptive optics systems. The proposed approach exhibits potential for implementation in ground-based optical applications in marine environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14092267","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,8]],"date-time":"2022-05-08T23:27:25Z","timestamp":1652052445000},"page":"2267","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Optical Turbulence Profile in Marine Environment with Artificial Neural Network Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Cuicui","family":"Bi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Science Island Branch of Graduate School, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2456-1366","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chun","family":"Qing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pengfei","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaomei","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qing","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xianmei","family":"Qian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wenyue","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ningquan","family":"Weng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Optics, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China"},{"name":"Advanced Laser Technology Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei 230037, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tatarskii, V.I. (1961). Wave Propagation in a Turbulent Medium, McGraw-Hill.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3057286"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Good, R.E., Beland, R.R., Murphy, E.A., Brown, J.H., and Dewan, E.M. (1988, January 4\u20138). Atmospheric models of optical turbulence. Proceedings of the Modeling of the Atmosphere, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.975626"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7898","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.36.007898","article-title":"Whole atmospheric-turbulence profiling with generalized scidar","volume":"36","author":"Avila","year":"1997","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kornilov, V., Tokovinin, A., Vozyakova, O., Zaitsev, A., Shatsky, N., Potanin, S., and Sarazin, M. (2003, January 22\u201328). MASS: A monitor of the vertical turbulence distribution. Proceedings of the Astronomical Telescopes and Instrumentation, Waikoloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.457982"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1268","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2966.2007.12467.x","article-title":"Combined MASS\u2013DIMM instruments for atmospheric turbulence studies","volume":"382","author":"Kornilov","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.63.000270","article-title":"Experimental determination of two-dimensional spatiotemporal power spectra of stellar light scintillation Evidence for a multilayer structure of the air turbulence in the upper troposphere","volume":"63","author":"Vernin","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-8711.2002.05847.x","article-title":"SLODAR: Measuring optical turbulence altitude with a Shack\u2013Hartmann wavefront sensor","volume":"337","author":"Wilson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2966.2006.10337.x","article-title":"Determination of the profile of atmospheric optical turbulence strength from SLODAR data","volume":"369","author":"Butterley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vedrenne, N., Michau, V., Robert, C., and Conan, J.-M. (2006, January 13\u201317). Improvements in Cn2 profile monitoring with a Shack Hartmann Wavefront sensor. Proceedings of the Atmospheric Optical Modeling, Measurement, and Simulation II, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.680444"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1459","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/sty1097","article-title":"A modified S-DIMM+: Applying additional height grids for characterizing daytime seeing profiles","volume":"478","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carlisle, E., Schmidt, D., Marino, J., and Guesalaga, A. (2017, January 25\u201330). Use of SLODAR for daytime turbulence profiling. Proceedings of the Adaptive Optics for Extremely Large Telescopes, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.","DOI":"10.26698\/AO4ELT5.0103"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10499","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.438170","article-title":"Near ground horizontal high resolution Cn2 profiling from Shack\u2013Hartmann slopeand scintillation data","volume":"60","author":"Sauvage","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.443698","article-title":"Characterizing turbulence profile layers through celestial single-source observations","volume":"61","author":"Laidlaw","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gimmestad, G.G., Roberts, D.W., Stewart, J.M., Wood, J.W., and Eaton, F.D. (2008, January 16\u201320). Testing of LIDAR system for turbulence profiles. Proceedings of the SPIE Defense and Security Symposium, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.792204"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Odintsov, S.L., Gladkikh, V.A., Kamardin, A.P., and Nevzorova, I.V. (2019). Determination of the Structural Characteristic of the Refractive Index of Optical Waves in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer with Remote Acoustic Sounding Facilities. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10110711"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1086\/429785","article-title":"Optical Turbulence Profiling with Balloons Relevant to Astronomy and Atmospheric Physics","volume":"117","author":"Azouit","year":"2005","journal-title":"Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.54.000052","article-title":"Modulation Transfer Function Associated with Image Transmission through Turbulent Media","volume":"54","author":"Hufnagel","year":"1964","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1051\/0004-6361:20031390","article-title":"Optical turbulence modeling in the boundary layer and free atmosphere using instrumented meteorological balloons","volume":"416","author":"Abahamid","year":"2004","journal-title":"Astron. Astrophys."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"D07102","article-title":"Turbulence characteristics over tropical station Gadanki (13.5 N, 79.2 E) estimated using high-resolution GPS radiosonde data","volume":"115","author":"Nath","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Dewan, E.M., Good, R.E., Beland, B., and Brown, J. (1993). A Model for Cn2 (Optical Turbulence) Profiles Using Radiosonde Data, Phillips Laboratory. Phillips Laboratory Technical Report, PL-TR-93-2043, ADA 279399."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Ruggiero, F.H., and DeBenedictis, D.A. (2002, January 1). Forecasting optical turbulence from mesoscale numerical weather prediction models. Proceedings of the DoD High Performance Modernization Program Users Group Conference, Austin, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4130","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.40.004130","article-title":"A simple approach for estimating the refractive index structure parameter (Cn2) profile in the atmosphere","volume":"40","author":"Basu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tracey, B.D., Duraisamy, K., and Alonso, J.J. (2015, January 5\u20139). A machine learning strategy to assist turbulence model development. Proceedings of the 53rd AIAA aerospace sciences meeting, Kissimmee, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2015-1287"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envsoft.2004.07.015","article-title":"Air dispersion model and neural network: A new perspective for integrated models in the simulation of complex situations","volume":"21","author":"Pelliccioni","year":"2006","journal-title":"Environ. Modell. Softw."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2611","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.43.002611","article-title":"Turbulence correction with artificial neural networks","volume":"43","author":"Lohani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.1080\/18756891.2013.809937","article-title":"Hybrid Fuzzy Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (FARIMAH) Model for Forecasting the Foreign Exchange Markets","volume":"6","author":"Khashei","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Int. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108012","DOI":"10.1088\/1538-3873\/ab1ebb","article-title":"Experience with artificial neural networks applied in multi-object adaptive optics","volume":"131","author":"Alonso","year":"2019","journal-title":"Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2334","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.41.002334","article-title":"Using an artificial neural network approach to estimate surface-layer optical turbulence at Mauna Loa, Hawaii","volume":"41","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3699","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.388959","article-title":"Adaptive niche-genetic algorithm based on backpropagation neural network for atmospheric turbulence forecasting","volume":"59","author":"Su","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, M.M., Shao, S.Y., Liu, Q., Sun, G., Han, Y., and Weng, N.Q. (2021). Optical Turbulence Profile Forecasting and Verification in the Offshore Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11188523"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1080\/10629360600564874","article-title":"Comparison of ARIMA, neural networks and hybrid models in time series: Tourist arrival forecasting","volume":"77","author":"Aslanargun","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Stat. Comput. Simul."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1029\/92WR02129","article-title":"Neural network-based screening for groundwater reclamation under uncertainty","volume":"29","author":"Ranjithan","year":"1993","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Riedmiller, M., and Braun, H. (April, January 28). A direct adaptive method for faster backpropagation learning: The RPROP algorithm. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1973)030<0083:COMTDW>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Correlation of microthermal turbulence data with meteorological soundings in the troposphere","volume":"30","author":"Bufton","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4571","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.386078","article-title":"Mesoscale optical turbulence simulations above Tibetan Plateau: First attempt","volume":"28","author":"Qing","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4096","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stab2608","article-title":"Optical turbulence and wind speed distributions above the Tibetan Plateau from balloon-borne microthermal measurements","volume":"508","author":"Qing","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1785","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.397894","article-title":"Estimating and measurement of atmospheric optical turbulence according to balloon-borne radiosonde for three sites in China","volume":"37","author":"Bi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.387211","article-title":"New (Cn2) statistical model based on first radiosonde turbulence observation over Lhasa","volume":"37","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"157","article-title":"Propagation through atmospheric optical turbulence","volume":"2","author":"Beland","year":"1993","journal-title":"Atmos. Propag. Radiat."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2302","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/staa2010","article-title":"Mesoscale modelling of optical turbulence in the atmosphere: The need for ultrahigh vertical grid resolution","volume":"497","author":"Basu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1086\/595871","article-title":"Balloon thermosonde measurements over Mauna Kea and comparison with seeing measurements","volume":"120","author":"McHugh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"144","article-title":"Optical turbulence vertical distribution with standard and high resolution at Mt Graham","volume":"404","author":"Masciadri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1088\/0150-536X\/13\/5\/002","article-title":"On the origin of speckle boiling and its effects in stellar speckle interferometry","volume":"13","author":"Roddier","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Opt."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1968","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stt1708","article-title":"MOSE: Operational forecast of the optical turbulence and atmospheric parameters at European Southern Observatory ground-based sites\u2014I. Overview and vertical stratification of atmospheric parameters at 0\u201320 km","volume":"436","author":"Masciadri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2695","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2966.2010.18097.x","article-title":"Optical turbulence simulations at Mt Graham using the Meso-NH model","volume":"412","author":"Hagelin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6379","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.397325","article-title":"Machine learning informed predictor importance measures of environmental parameters in maritime optical turbulence","volume":"59","author":"Jellen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/9\/2267\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:07:53Z","timestamp":1760137673000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/9\/2267"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,8]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14092267"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14092267","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,8]]}}}