{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T00:25:46Z","timestamp":1760228746404,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,20]],"date-time":"2022-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653004800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"FrontierSI and Geoscience Australia","award":["1002A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1002A"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Centimetre-level accurate ionospheric corrections are required for a high accuracy and rapid convergence of Precise Point Positioning (PPP) GNSS positioning solutions. This research aims to evaluate the accuracy of a local\/regional ionospheric delay model using a linear interpolation method across Australia. The accuracy of the ionospheric corrections is assessed as a function of both different latitudinal regions and the number and spatial density of GNSS Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORSs). Our research shows that, for a local region of 5\u00b0 latitude \u00d710\u00b0 longitude in mid-latitude regions of Australia (~30\u00b0 to 40\u00b0S) with approximately 15 CORS stations, ionospheric corrections with an accuracy of 5 cm can be obtained. In Victoria and New South Wales, where dense CORS networks exist (nominal spacing of ~100 km), the average ionospheric corrections accuracy can reach 2 cm. For sparse networks (nominal spacing of &gt;200 km) at lower latitudes, the average accuracy of the ionospheric corrections is within the range of 8 to 15 cm; significant variations in the ionospheric errors of some specific satellite observations during certain periods were also found. In some regions such as Central Australia, where there are a limited number of CORSs, this model was impossible to use. On average, centimetre-level accurate ionospheric corrections can be achieved if there are sufficiently dense (i.e., nominal spacing of approximately 200 km) GNSS CORS networks in the region of interest. Based on the current availability of GNSS stations across Australia, we propose a set of 15 regions of different ionospheric delay accuracies with extents of 5\u00b0 latitude \u00d710\u00b0 longitude covering continental Australia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102463","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,21]],"date-time":"2022-05-21T09:18:08Z","timestamp":1653124688000},"page":"2463","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Regional Ionospheric Corrections for High Accuracy GNSS Positioning"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3172-2316","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tam","family":"Dao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SPACE Research Centre, School of Science, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, Melbourne 3000, Australia"}]},{"given":"Ken","family":"Harima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geoscience Australia, Canberra 2609, Australia"},{"name":"FrontierSI, Melbourne 3000, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4881-3345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brett","family":"Carter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPACE Research Centre, School of Science, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, Melbourne 3000, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1169-7064","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julie","family":"Currie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPACE Research Centre, School of Science, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, Melbourne 3000, Australia"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"McClusky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geoscience Australia, Canberra 2609, Australia"}]},{"given":"Rupert","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FrontierSI, Melbourne 3000, Australia"}]},{"given":"Eldar","family":"Rubinov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FrontierSI, Melbourne 3000, Australia"}]},{"given":"Suelynn","family":"Choy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPACE Research Centre, School of Science, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) University, Melbourne 3000, Australia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.5081\/jgps.7.1.62","article-title":"An Evaluation of Various Ionospheric Error Mitigation Methods used in Single Frequency PPP","volume":"1","author":"Choy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Positioning"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-016-0545-x","article-title":"Uncovering common misconceptions in GNSS Precise Point Positioning and its future prospect","volume":"21","author":"Choy","year":"2016","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"59","article-title":"High accuracy precise point positioning using a single frequency GPS receiver","volume":"5","author":"Choy","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5005","DOI":"10.1029\/96JB03860","article-title":"Precise point positioning for the efficient and robust analysis of GPS data from large networks","volume":"102","author":"Zumberge","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00012883","article-title":"Precise point positioning using IGS orbit and clock products","volume":"5","author":"Kouba","year":"2001","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Samper, M.D., and Merino, M.M. (2013, January 25). Advantages and Drawbacks of the Precise Point Positioning (PPP) Technique for Earthquake, Tsunami Prediction and Monitoring. Proceedings of the ION 2013 Pacific PNT Meeting, Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Wabbena, G., Schmitz, M., and Bagge, A. (2005, January 16). PPP-RTK: Precise Point Positioning Using State-Space Representation in RTK Networks. Proceedings of the 18th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2005), Long Beach, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leick, A., Rapoport, L., and Tatarnikov, D. (2015). GPS Satellite Surveying, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119018612"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2020.1714752","article-title":"Accuracy comparison of post-processed PPP and real-time absolute positioning techniques","volume":"11","author":"Alkan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/navi.148","article-title":"Fast Precise Point Positioning: A System to Provide Corrections for Single and Multi-frequency Navigation","volume":"63","author":"Juan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Inst. Navig."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4213","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2189888","article-title":"Enhanced Precise Point Positioning for GNSS Users","volume":"50","author":"Juan","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"014001","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/aaefe5","article-title":"Assessment of ionospheric corrections for PPP-RTK using regional ionosphere modelling","volume":"30","author":"Psychas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-010-0424-0","article-title":"Regional reference network augmented precise point positioning for instantaneous ambiguity resolution","volume":"85","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"263","article-title":"The IGS VTEC maps: A reliable source of ionospheric information since 1998","volume":"83","author":"Juan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-015-0868-3","article-title":"Accuracy of ionospheric models used in GNSS and SBAS: Methodology and analysis","volume":"90","author":"Juan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geod."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1002\/navi.57","article-title":"Global and regional ionospheric corrections for faster PPP convergence","volume":"61","author":"Banville","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Inst. Navig."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1080\/14498596.2018.1427155","article-title":"Satellite delivery of high-accuracy GNSS precise point positioning service: An overview for Australia","volume":"64","author":"Choy","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Spat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eng.2020.07.012","article-title":"Positioning Australia for the Future","volume":"6","author":"Brown","year":"2020","journal-title":"Engineering"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Harima, K., Choy, S., Elneser, L., and Kogure, S. (2016, January 6\u20138). Local augmentation to wide area PPP systems: A case study in Victoria, Australia. Proceedings of the IGNSS Conference, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Melbourne, W. (1985, January 15\u201319). The case for ranging in GPS based geodetic systems. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Precise Positioning with the Global Positioning System, Rockville, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"W\u00fcbbena, G. (1985, January 15\u201319). Software developments for geodetic positioning with GPS using TI 4100 code and carrier measurements. Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Precise Positioning with the Global Positioning System, Rockville, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Subirana, J.S., Zornoza, J.J., and Hern\u00e1ndez-Pajares, M. (2022, April 12). Detector Based in Code and Carrier Phase Data: The Melburne\u2013W\u00fcbbena Combination. ESA Navipedia. Available online: https:\/\/gssc.esa.int\/navipedia\/index.php\/Detector_based_in_code_and_carrier_phase_data:_The_Melbourne-W%C3%BCbbena_combination."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2021, June 15). The PEA Packet. Available online: https:\/\/bitbucket.org\/geoscienceaustralia\/pea\/src\/master\/."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1029\/TE048i004p00219","article-title":"Mean, K-Indices from Twenty-One Magnetic Observatories and Five Quiet Days and Five Disturbed Days for 1942","volume":"47","author":"Johnston","year":"1943","journal-title":"Terr. Magn. Atmos. Electr."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2022, April 15). The International 5 and 10 Quietest and 5 Most Disturbed Days in Each Month. Available online: https:\/\/wdc.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp\/qddays\/."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"A12211","article-title":"Evaluation of SuperMAG auroral electrojet indices as indicators of substorms and auroral power","volume":"116","author":"Newell","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"A09213","article-title":"The SuperMAG data processing technique","volume":"117","author":"Gjerloev","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2462","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA022043","article-title":"Interhemispheric propagation and in-teractions of auroral traveling ionospheric disturbances near the equator","volume":"121","author":"Pradipta","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vald\u00e9s-Abreu, J.C., Diaz, M.A., B\u00e1ez, J.C., and Stable-S\u00e1nchez, Y. (2022). Effects of the 12 May 2021 Geomgagnetic Storm on Georeferencing Precision. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14010038"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/10\/2463\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:15:45Z","timestamp":1760138145000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/10\/2463"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,20]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14102463"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14102463","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,20]]}}}