{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T00:25:29Z","timestamp":1760228729680,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,22]],"date-time":"2022-05-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1653177600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2018YFC1506601","NMICJY202106"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFC1506601","NMICJY202106"]}]},{"name":"Key Techniques and Data Sets of Land Surface Reanalysis in the Qinghai\u2013Xizang Plateau","award":["2018YFC1506601","NMICJY202106"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018YFC1506601","NMICJY202106"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>High-resolution gridded 2 m air temperature datasets are important input data for global and regional climate change studies, agrohydrologic model simulations and numerical weather predictions, etc. In this study, the digital elevation model (DEM) is used to correct temperature forecasts produced by ECMWF. The multi-grid variation formulation method is then used to fuse the data from corrected temperature forecasts and ground automatic station observations. The fused dataset covers the area over (0\u201360\u00b0N, 70\u2013140\u00b0S), where different underlying surfaces exist, such as plains, basins, plateaus, and mountains. The spatial and temporal resolutions are 1 km and 1 h, respectively. The comparison of the fusion data with the verification observations, including 2400 weather stations, indicates that the accuracy of the gridded temperature is superior to European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) data. This is because a more significant number of stations and high-resolution terrain data are used to generate the fusion data than are utilized in the ECMWF. The obtained dataset can describe the temperature feature of peaks and valleys more precisely. Due to its continuous temporal coverage and consistent quality, the fusion dataset is one of China\u2019s most widely used temperature datasets. However, data uncertainty will increase for areas with sparse observations and high mountains, and we must be cautious when using data from these areas.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102480","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,22]],"date-time":"2022-05-22T07:13:57Z","timestamp":1653203637000},"page":"2480","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Development and Evaluation of a Real-Time Hourly One-Kilometre Gridded Multisource Fusion Air Temperature Dataset in China Based on Remote Sensing DEM"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0185-3190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shuai","family":"Han","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Meteorological Information Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chunxiang","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Meteorological Information Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shuai","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Meteorological Information Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junxia","family":"Gu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Meteorological Information Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4419-3898","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Meteorological Information Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhihong","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Meteorological Information Center, China Meteorological Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Henan Meteorological Observation Data Center, Zhengzhou 450000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanqin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Information Center of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Hohhot 010000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, X., Huang, G., Li, Y., Lin, Q., Yan, D., and He, X. (2021). Dynamical Downscaling of Temperature Variations over the Canadian Prairie Provinces under Climate Change. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13214350"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, C., Huang, G., Wang, G., Zhang, J., Wang, X., and Song, T. (2021). Long-Term Projection of Water Cycle Changes over China Using RegCM. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193832"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, S., Liu, B., Shi, C., Liu, Y., Qiu, M., and Sun, S. (2020). Evaluation of CLDAS and GLDAS Datasets for Near-Surface Air Temperature over Major Land Areas of China. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12104311"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-019-9042-9","article-title":"Development and evaluation of hourly and kilometer resolution retrospective and real-time surface meteorological blended forcing dataset (SMBFD) in China","volume":"33","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Meteor. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, X., Han, S., and Shi, C. (2021). Multiscale Assessments of Three Reanalysis Temperature Data Systems over China. Agriculture, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture11121292"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, Y., Han, S., Shi, C., Gao, T., Zhen, H., and Liu, X. (2021). Evaluation of HRCLDAS and ERA5 Datasets for Near-Surface Wind over Hainan Island and South China Sea. Atmosphere, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12060766"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1002\/met.1770","article-title":"Establishment and assessment of hourly high-resolution gridded air temperature data sets in Zhejiang, China","volume":"26","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meteorol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2463","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-14-0230.1","article-title":"Evaluation of the Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS) Air Temperature Data Products","volume":"16","author":"Ji","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-10-05037.1","article-title":"The Real-Time Mesoscale Analysis at NOAA\u2019s National Centers for Environmental Prediction: Current Status and Development","volume":"26","author":"Manikin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-13-00139.1","article-title":"Comparison of Surface Wind and Temperature Analyses from an Ensemble Kalman Filter and the NWS Real-Time Mesoscale Analysis System","volume":"29","author":"Ancell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1080\/02626667.2018.1444767","article-title":"Evaluation and comparison of interpolated gauge rainfall data and gridded rainfall data in Florida, USA","volume":"63","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hydrol. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1175\/2010WAF2222451.1","article-title":"The Integrated Nowcasting through Comprehensive Analysis (INCA) System and Its Validation over the Eastern Alpine Region","volume":"26","author":"Haiden","year":"2011","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1175\/WAF-D-11-00031.1","article-title":"Verification of Operational Analyses Using an Extremely High-Density Surface Station Network","volume":"26","author":"Kann","year":"2011","journal-title":"Weather Forecast."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-020-0369-y","article-title":"The first high-resolution meteorological forcing dataset for land process studies over China","volume":"7","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3088","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI3790.1","article-title":"Development of a 50-Year High-Resolution Global Dataset of Meteorological Forcings for Land Surface Modeling","volume":"19","author":"Sheffield","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheffield, J., and Wood, E. (2007). Characteristics of global and regional drought, 1950\u20132000: Analysis of soil moisture data from off-line simulation of the terrestrial hydrologic cycle. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf., 112.","DOI":"10.1029\/2006JD008288"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Q., Yang, J., Chen, H., Liu, J., Ji, Q., Wang, Y., and Tang, F. (2021). Evaluation of Extreme Precipitation Based on Three Long-Term Gridded Products over the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13153010"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, L., Zhang, L., Shen, Y., Zhang, Y., Ai, M., and Zhang, W. (2021). Modeling Snow Depth and Snow Water Equivalent Distribution and Variation Characteristics in the Irtysh River Basin, China. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11188365"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-019-8172-4","article-title":"Regional and Global Land Data Assimilation Systems: Innovations, Challenges, and Prospects","volume":"33","author":"Xia","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-85-3-381","article-title":"The Global Land Data Assimilation System","volume":"85","author":"Rodell","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaitchik, B.F., Rodell, M., and Olivera, F. (2010). Evaluation of the Global Land Data Assimilation System using global river discharge data and a source-to-sink routing scheme. Water Resour. Res., 46.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009WR007811"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170012","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.12","article-title":"A land data assimilation system for sub-Saharan Africa food and water security applications","volume":"4","author":"McNally","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-17-0125.1","article-title":"NCA-LDAS Land Analysis: Development and Performance of a Multisensor, Multivariate Land Data Assimilation System for the National Climate Assessment","volume":"20","author":"Kumar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1175\/JAM2463.1","article-title":"Description and Evaluation of the Characteristics of the NCAR High-Resolution Land Data Assimilation System","volume":"46","author":"Chen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Clim."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6646","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.6604","article-title":"Validation of ECMWF climatic data, 1979\u20132017, and implications for modelling water balance for tropical climates","volume":"40","author":"Aparecido","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-010-0200-x","article-title":"Assessment of ZTD derived from ECMWF\/NCEP data with GPS ZTD over China","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"GPS Solutions"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-020-01529-3","article-title":"Performance of water vapour retrieval from MODIS and ECMWF and their validation with ground based GPS measurements over Varanasi","volume":"130","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.11619\/africa1964.2004.65_37","article-title":"Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Data for Africa","volume":"2004","author":"Hirano","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Afr. Stud."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1175\/2010MWR3338.1","article-title":"A Space\u2013Time Multiscale Analysis System: A Sequential Variational Analysis Approach","volume":"139","author":"Xie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mon. Weather. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49711347813","article-title":"Variational assimilation of meteorological observations with the adjoint vorticity equation. Part II. Numerical results. Quart","volume":"113","author":"Courtier","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Roy. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"743","article-title":"Comparison Tests of the Integration Effect of SurfaceTemperature by LAPS and STMAS","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Plateau Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Li, M., Wang, L., She, J., Zhu, L., and Li, X. (2021). Long-Term Lake Area Change and Its Relationship with Climate in the Endorheic Basins of the Tibetan Plateau. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13245125"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2005.11.011","article-title":"Geostatistical spatiotemporal analysis of air temperature as an aid to delineating thermal stability zones in a potential show cave: Implications for environmental management","volume":"81","author":"Calaforra","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(00)00144-X","article-title":"Geostatistical approaches for incorporating elevation into the spatial interpolation of rainfall","volume":"228","author":"Goovaerts","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00866095","article-title":"Effects of regional temperature, wind speed and soil wetness on spatial structure of surface air temperature","volume":"46","author":"Kawashima","year":"1992","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-013-3477-8","article-title":"Groundwater levels time series sensitivity to pluviometry and air temperature: A geostatistical approach to Sfax region, Tunisia","volume":"186","author":"Triki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"3","article-title":"Prediction the Spatial Air Temperature Distribution of an Experimental Greenhouse Using Geostatistical Methods","volume":"801","author":"Sapounas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Hortic."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1007\/s00704-021-03583-3","article-title":"Estimating monthly air temperature using remote sensing on a region with highly variable topography and scarce monitoring in the southern Ecuadorian Andes","volume":"144","author":"Ballari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theor. Appl. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1531","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-19-0277.1","article-title":"Evaluation of a Convection-Permitting Modeling of Precipitation over the Tibetan Plateau and Its Influences on the Simulation of Snow-Cover Fraction","volume":"21","author":"Gao","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Schaumberger, A., Scheifinger, H., and Formayer, H. (2011). Improvement of air temperature interpolation in mountainous regions for grassland-specific analysis of growth dynamics[C]\/\/16th Symposium of the European Grassland Federation. Grassland Farming and Land Management Systems in Mountainous Regions, Blackwell Publishing Ltd."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"539","article-title":"Suitability Assessment of Different Interpolation Methods in the Gridding Process of Station Collected Air Temperature: A Case Study in Jiangsu Province, China","volume":"13","author":"Peng","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geo-Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.finel.2008.10.005","article-title":"A multiscale finite element space-time discretization method for transient transport phenomena using bubble functions","volume":"45","author":"Nassehi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Finite Elements Anal. Des."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1615\/IntJMultCompEng.v2.i4.40","article-title":"Multiscale Computational Strategy With Time and Space Homogenization: A Radial-Type Approximation Technique for Solving Microproblems","volume":"2","author":"Nouy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Multiscale Comput. Eng."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-2046(02)00165-2","article-title":"Analyzing the land cover of an urban environment using high-resolution orthophotos","volume":"63","author":"Akbari","year":"2003","journal-title":"Landsc. Urb. Plan."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4661","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-16-4661-2012","article-title":"Elevation correction of ERA-Interim temperature data in complex terrain","volume":"16","author":"Gao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.4157\/grj.77.866","article-title":"Land Use Pattern Adjustment under Ecological Security: Look for Secure Land Use Pattern in China","volume":"77","author":"Shi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geogr. Rev. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1002\/jgrg.20051","article-title":"Characterization and intercomparison of global moderate resolution leaf area index (LAI) products: Analysis of climatologies and theoretical uncertainties","volume":"118","author":"Fang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comgeo.2014.02.005","article-title":"Delaunay refinement algorithms for triangular mesh generation","volume":"47","author":"Shewchuk","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Geom. Theory Appl."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"219","article-title":"Two Algorithms for Constructing a Delaunay Triangulation","volume":"9","author":"Lee","year":"1980","journal-title":"Int. J. Parallel Program."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-009-0085-0","article-title":"Sensitivity of surface air temperature change to land types in China","volume":"52","author":"Yang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D-Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2005","DOI":"10.1002\/nme.1620371203","article-title":"Efficient three-dimensional Delaunay triangulation with automatic point creation and imposed boundary constraints","volume":"37","author":"Weatherill","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-4257(02)00078-0","article-title":"Global land cover mapping from MODIS: Algorithms and early results","volume":"83","author":"Friedl","year":"2002","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Oleson, K.W., Driese, K.L., and Maslanik, J.A. (1996, January 31\u201331). The Sensitivity of a Land Surface Parameterization Scheme to the Choice of Re-motely Sensed Land-Cover Datasets. Proceedings of the International Geoscience & Remote Sensing Symposium, Lincoln, NE, USA."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/0034-4257(94)00098-8","article-title":"Classification of multispectral images based on fractions of endmembers\u2014Application to land-cover change in the Brazilian Amazon","volume":"52","author":"Adams","year":"1995","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00021506","article-title":"Effects of Land Cover on Stream Ecosystems: Roles of Empirical Models and Scaling Issues","volume":"6","author":"Strayer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ecosystems"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/10\/2480\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:16:22Z","timestamp":1760138182000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/10\/2480"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,22]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14102480"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14102480","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,22]]}}}