{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T18:32:03Z","timestamp":1770834723697,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,3]],"date-time":"2022-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1654214400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62071359"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62071359"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2020JQ-329"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020JQ-329"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Shaanxi Province Science Foundation for Youths","award":["62071359"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62071359"]}]},{"name":"Shaanxi Province Science Foundation for Youths","award":["2020JQ-329"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2020JQ-329"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Inverse synthetic aperture LiDAR (ISAL) breaks through the limitations of the diffraction limit and achieves ultra-long-distance radar imaging with centimeter-level resolution. However, because ISAL obtains a high resolution, it is accompanied by a high sampling rate and a large data volume, and the processing process is complicated, which is not conducive to fast real-time imaging of ISAL targets. At the same time, considering that actual non-cooperative targets cannot obtain full-angle ISAL images during movement, in this paper, the Kirchhoff approximation method based on two-dimensional Fourier transform is used to calculate the scattering echo of the rough surface of the target, and then, the rough surface scattering echo of the target coordinate system is obtained through coordinate transformation. After vector superposition, the scattered echo and ISAL image of the rough target are finally obtained, and then the influence of the rotation angle on the ISAL imaging of the rough plate and the rough target is discussed. It is found that a small rotation angle range can also achieve clear ISAL imaging of rough targets, and the influence of different roughness on the ISAL imaging results of different rough targets under a small rotation angle is analyzed. When the roughness is decreased, the target scattering mainly comes from coherent scattering, and the target edge becomes sharper. As the roughness increases, the image energy distribution becomes more uniform. Theoretical and simulation experiments verify the feasibility of ISAL imaging of rough targets under small rotation angles.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14112694","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,3]],"date-time":"2022-06-03T10:33:01Z","timestamp":1654252381000},"page":"2694","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Inverse Synthetic Aperture LiDAR Imaging of Rough Targets under Small Rotation Angles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8681-3982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiyu","family":"Xue","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3240-5374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunhua","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]},{"given":"Tan","family":"Qu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3354-7275","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhensen","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]},{"given":"Yanhui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]},{"given":"Geng","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]},{"given":"Kai","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Xidian University, Xi\u2019an 710071, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.3788\/gzxb20134210.1238","article-title":"Inverse synthetic aperture lidar imaging algorithm for spin targets","volume":"42","author":"Hang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Photonica Sin."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"84","article-title":"Research progress of synthetic aperture lidar imaging error compensation","volume":"5","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fly. Missile"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3063","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2269138","article-title":"Reduction of vibration-induced artifacts in synthetic aperture radar imagery","volume":"52","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4145","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2187665","article-title":"SAR-Based Vibration Estimation Using the Discrete Fractional Fourier Transform","volume":"50","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7593","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2314681","article-title":"SAR-based paired echo focusing and suppression of vibrating targets","volume":"52","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1300.2012.20076","article-title":"Research on synthetic aperture lidar imaging","volume":"1","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Radars"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"637","article-title":"Inverse synthetic aperture lidar imaging of indoor measured data","volume":"40","author":"Liang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Infrared Laser Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"Large-aperture synthetic aperture laser imaging radar demonstration prototype and its laboratory verification","volume":"31","author":"Liu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Opt."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1109\/78.127968","article-title":"Maximum entropy regularization in inverse synthetic aperture radar imagery","volume":"40","author":"Wlqn","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal. Process."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozdemir, C. (2012). Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging with MATLAB Algorithms, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118178072"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Victor, C., and Chen, M.M. (2014). Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging: Principle, Algorithm, and Applications, SciTech USA."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2016.2544945","article-title":"Compensation for High-Frequency Vibration of Platform in SAR Imaging Based on Adaptive Chirplet Decomposition","volume":"13","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"68","article-title":"Inverse synthetic aperture lidar imaging algorithm for maneuvering targets","volume":"47","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Photonica Sin."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0711002","DOI":"10.3788\/AOS201838.0711002","article-title":"Inverse synthetic aperture lidar joint compensation imaging algorithm based on Nelder-Mead simplex method","volume":"38","author":"Shengjie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Opt."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5529","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2019.2904611","article-title":"Compressive Sensing based SAR Imaging and Autofocus using Improved Tikhonov Regularization","volume":"19","author":"Kang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"6","article-title":"High-sensitivity receiving technology of space-based inverse synthetic aperture lidar","volume":"36","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Shanghai Aerosp."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2021.106547","article-title":"Sparse imaging of airborne inverse synthetic aperture lidar micro-moving targets","volume":"140","author":"Zeng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"10","article-title":"Inverse synthetic aperture lidar motion-compensated imaging algorithm for maneuvering targets","volume":"41","author":"Jian","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Opt."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"904","article-title":"An inverse synthetic aperture lidar imaging algorithm","volume":"40","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Laser Infrared"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, H., Guo, L., Li, Y., Han, L., Xing, M., and Zeng, X. (2022). Varying Amplitude Vibration Phase Suppression Algorithm in ISAL Imaging. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14051122"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Urabi (1988). Microwave Remote Sensing, Science Press."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2100491","DOI":"10.1002\/andp.202100491","article-title":"Simulating the Scattering Echo and Inverse Synthetic Aperture Lidar Imaging of Rough Targets","volume":"534","author":"Xue","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Der Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"295","article-title":"Book-Review\u2014Microwave Remote Sensing\u2014Active and Passive","volume":"35","author":"Ulaby","year":"1983","journal-title":"Space Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsang, L., Kong, J.A., and Ding, K.H. (2000). Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves: Theories and Applications||Fundamentals of Random Scattering, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471224286"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2021, July 09). RefractiveIndex.INFO Website: \u00a9 2008\u20132020 Mikhail Polyanskiy. (Refractive Index Database) Website: 20082020 Mikhail Polyanskiy. Available online: https:\/\/refractiveindex.info."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/11\/2694\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:24:21Z","timestamp":1760138661000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/11\/2694"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,3]]},"references-count":25,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14112694"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14112694","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,3]]}}}