{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T14:39:23Z","timestamp":1775313563013,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]],"date-time":"2022-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655337600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00f3n","award":["RTI2018-093874-B-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RTI2018-093874-B-I00"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>UAV-DAP (unmanned aerial vehicle-digital aerial photogrammetry) has become one of the most widely used geomatics techniques in the last decade due to its low cost and capacity to generate high-density point clouds, thus demonstrating its great potential for delivering high-precision products with a spatial resolution of centimetres. The questions is, how should it be applied to obtain the best results? This research explores different flat scenarios to analyse the accuracy of this type of survey based on photogrammetric SfM (structure from motion) technology, flight planning with ground control points (GCPs), and the combination of forward and cross strips, up to the point of processing. The RMSE (root mean square error) is analysed for each scenario to verify the quality of the results. An equation is adjusted to estimate the a priori accuracy of the photogrammetric survey with digital sensors, identifying the best option for \u03bcxyz (weight coefficients depending on the layout of both the GCP and the image network) for the four scenarios studied. The UAV flights were made in Lorca (Murcia, Spain). The study area has an extension of 80 ha, which was divided into four blocks. The GCPs and checkpoints (ChPs) were measured using dual-frequency GNSS (global navigation satellite system), with a tripod and centring system on the mark at the indicated point. The photographs were post-processed using the Agisoft Metashape Professional software (64 bits). The flights were made with two multirotor UAVs, a Phantom 3 Professional and an Inspire 2, with a Zenmuse X5S camera. We verify the influence by including additional forward and\/or cross strips combined with four GCPs in the corners, plus one additional GCP in the centre, in order to obtain better photogrammetric adjustments based on the preliminary flight planning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14122877","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]],"date-time":"2022-06-16T03:01:22Z","timestamp":1655348482000},"page":"2877","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Estimation of the Block Adjustment Error in UAV Photogrammetric Flights in Flat Areas"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1916-0246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alba Nely","family":"Ar\u00e9valo-Verjel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n en Fotogrametr\u00eda y L\u00e1ser Esc\u00e1ner (GIFLE), Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Cartogr\u00e1fica, Geodesia y Fotogrametr\u00eda, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Camino de Vera s\/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain"},{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n en Hidrolog\u00eda y Recursos H\u00eddricos (HYDROS), Departamento de Construcciones Civiles, Universidad Francisco de Paula Santander, C\u00facuta 540003, Colombia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9443-9214","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Luis","family":"Lerma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo de Investigaci\u00f3n en Fotogrametr\u00eda y L\u00e1ser Esc\u00e1ner (GIFLE), Departamento de Ingenier\u00eda Cartogr\u00e1fica, Geodesia y Fotogrametr\u00eda, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Camino de Vera s\/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7235-5295","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan F.","family":"Prieto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ETSI Topograf\u00eda, Geodesia y Cartograf\u00eda, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid, Ctra. Valencia km 7, 28031 Madrid, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6724-6780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Pedro","family":"Carbonell-Rivera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Geo-Environmental Cartography and Remote Sensing Group (CGAT), Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Val\u00e8ncia, Camino de Vera s\/n, 46022 Valencia, Spain"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5745-3527","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geosciences (IGEO), CSIC-UCM, Calle del Doctor Severo Ochoa, 7, Ciudad Universitaria, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6880","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5126880","article-title":"Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) for High-Resolution Reconstruction of Topography: The Structure from Motion Approach on Coastal Environments","volume":"5","author":"Mancini","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103787","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2021.103787","article-title":"Centimetre-Range Deformations of Built Environment Revealed by Drone-Based Photogrammetry","volume":"128","author":"Varbla","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2014.02.013","article-title":"Unmanned Aerial Systems for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: A Review","volume":"92","author":"Colomina","year":"2014","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moe, K.T., Owari, T., Furuya, N., and Hiroshima, T. (2020). Comparing Individual Tree Height Information Derived from Field Surveys, LiDAR and UAV-DAP for High-Value Timber Species in Northern Japan. Forests, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/f11020223"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanz-Ablanedo, E., Chandler, J.H., Rodr\u00edguez-P\u00e9rez, J.R., and Ord\u00f3\u00f1ez, C. (2018). Accuracy of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and SfM Photogrammetry Survey as a Function of the Number and Location of Ground Control Points Used. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10101606"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.8.000377","article-title":"Affine Structure from Motion","volume":"8","author":"Doorn","year":"1991","journal-title":"JOSA A"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.5194\/nhess-18-1079-2018","article-title":"Review Article: The Use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPASs) for Natural Hazards Monitoring and Management","volume":"18","author":"Giordan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nettis, A., Saponaro, M., and Nanna, M. (2020). RPAS-Based Framework for Simplified Seismic Risk Assessment of Italian RC-Bridges. Buildings, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/buildings10090150"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Contreras-De-villar, F., Garc\u00eda, F.J., Mu\u00f1oz-Perez, J.J., Contreras-De-villar, A., Ruiz-Ortiz, V., Lopez, P., Garcia-L\u00f3pez, S., and Jigena, B. (2021). Beach Leveling Using a Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (Rpas): Problems and Solutions. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9010019"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-80612-7","article-title":"Novel Approach to Enhance Coastal Habitat and Biotope Mapping with Drone Aerial Imagery Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Monteiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2014.01.004","article-title":"Mobile 3D Mapping for Surveying Earthwork Projects Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) System","volume":"41","author":"Siebert","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1","article-title":"On the Measure of Land Subsidence throughout DEM and Orthomosaics Using GPS and UAV","volume":"22","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ing. Investig. Tecnol."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Mir\u00f3 Moncho, A. (2018). Optimizaci\u00f3n de La Geometr\u00eda Alar de Un UAS\/RPAS Para La Vigilancia Antiincendios, Polytechnic University of Valencia."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, A., Ordo\u00f1ez, J., Cartujo, P., and Martos, V. (2020). Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) in Agriculture: A Pursuit of Sustainability. Agronomy, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy11010007"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Araujo, R.F., Chambers, J.Q., Celes, C.H.S., Muller-Landau, H.C., dos Santos, A.P.F., Emmert, F., Ribeiro, G.H.P.M., Gimenez, B.O., Lima, A.J.N., and Campos, M.A.A. (2020). Integrating High Resolution Drone Imagery and Forest Inventory to Distinguish Canopy and Understory Trees and Quantify Their Contributions to Forest Structure and Dynamics. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0243079"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2020.112008","article-title":"Monitoring Grassland Invasion by Spotted Knapweed (Centaurea maculosa) with RPAS-Acquired Multispectral Imagery","volume":"249","author":"Baron","year":"2020","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabara, G., and Sawicki, P. (2019). Multi-Variant Accuracy Evaluation of UAV Imaging Surveys: A Case Study on Investment Area. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19235229"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1135","DOI":"10.1007\/s12524-018-0760-8","article-title":"An Experimental Analysis of Digital Elevation Models Generated with Lidar Data and UAV Photogrammetry","volume":"46","author":"Polat","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Acevo Herrera, R. (2011). Sistemas de Teledetecci\u00f3n Activos y Pasivos Embarcados en Sistemas A\u00e9reos No Tripulados para la Monitorizaci\u00f3n de la Tierra. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universitat Polit\u00e9cnica Catalunya]."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Bolet\u00edn Oficial del Estado (BOE) (2017). Real Decreto 1036\/2017 de 15 de Diciembre. Bol. Estado, 316, 129609\u2013129641."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00f3mez-L\u00f3pez, J.M., P\u00e9rez-Garc\u00eda, J.L., Mozas-Calvache, A.T., and Delgado-Garc\u00eda, J. (2020). Mission Flight Planning of RPAS for Photogrammetric Studies in Complex Scenes. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9060392"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Lerma, J.L.G. (2002). Fotogrametria Moderna: Analitica y Digital, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Val\u00e8ncia."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.12.101","article-title":"Accuracy Assesment of a Low-Cost UAV Derived Digital Elevation Model (DEM) in a Highly Broken and Vegetated Terrain","volume":"136","author":"Akturk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"221","article-title":"Assessment of Photogrammetric Mapping Accuracy Based on Variation Ground Control Points Number Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle","volume":"98","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2015.06.010","article-title":"DEM Generation with UAV Photogrammetry and Accuracy Analysis in Sahitler Hill","volume":"73","author":"Uysal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Meas. J. Int. Meas. Confed."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"85","article-title":"Quantification of the Error of Digital Terrain Models Derived from Images Acquired with UAV Cuantificaci\u00f3n del Error de Modelos Digitales de Terreno Derivados de Im\u00e1genes Adquiridas Con UAV","volume":"9","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ing. Agr\u00edc. Biosist."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.24133\/geoespacial.v16i1.1278","article-title":"Study of the Configurations of Ground Control Points for Photogrammetry with Drone","volume":"16","author":"Cisneros","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Geoespac."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casella, V., Chiabrando, F., Franzini, M., and Manzino, A.M. (2020). Accuracy Assessment of a UAV Block by Different Software Packages, Processing Schemes and Validation Strategies. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9030164"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-013-9335-4","article-title":"Assessing the Accuracy of Mosaics from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Imagery for Precision Agriculture Purposes in Wheat","volume":"15","year":"2014","journal-title":"Precis. Agric."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1111\/phor.12143","article-title":"Generation of Highly Accurate Digital Elevation Models with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles","volume":"31","author":"Reshetyuk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Photogramm. Rec."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zimmerman, T., Jansen, K., and Miller, J. (2020). Analysis of UAS Flight Altitude and Ground Control Point Parameters on DEM Accuracy along a Complex, Developed Coastline. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12142305"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"1","article-title":"Assessment of UAV-Photogrammetric Mapping Accuracy Based on Variation of Ground Control Points","volume":"72","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ar\u00e9valo-Verjel, A.N., Lerma, J.L., and Fern\u00e1ndez, J. (2021, January 7\u20138). An\u00e1lisis Comparativo de Software Para Obtener MDT Con Fotogrametr\u00eda RPAS. Proceedings of the Tercer Congreso en Ingenier\u00eda Geom\u00e1tica, Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.4995\/CiGeo2021.2021.12764"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toma\u0161t\u00edk, J., Mokro\u0161, M., Surov\u00fd, P., Grzn\u00e1rov\u00e1, A., and Mergani\u010d, J. (2019). UAV RTK\/PPK Method\u2014An Optimal Solution for Mapping Inaccessible Forested Areas?. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11060721"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14782","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-33128-0","article-title":"Modeling the Two- and Three-Dimensional Displacement Field in Lorca, Spain, Subsidence and the Global Implications","volume":"8","author":"Fernandez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"551","article-title":"Drought-Driven Transient Aquifer Compaction Imaged Using Multitemporal Satellite Radar Interferometry","volume":"39","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enggeo.2015.08.014","article-title":"Twenty-Year Advanced DInSAR Analysis of Severe Land Subsidence: The Alto Guadalent\u00edn Basin (Spain) Case Study","volume":"198","author":"Herrera","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eng. Geol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134757","article-title":"Improving Multi-Technique Monitoring Using Sentinel-1 and Cosmo-SkyMed Data and Upgrading Groundwater Model Capabilities","volume":"703","author":"Ezquerro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2021, June 03). Drone Mapping Software. Available online: https:\/\/www.dronedeploy.com\/."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Dach, R., Schaer, S., Arnold, D., Kalarus, M.S., Prange, L., Stebler, P., Villiger, A., and J\u00e4ggi, A. (2016). CODE Final Product Series for the IGS, Astronomical Institute, University of Bern."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teunissen, P.J.G., and Montenbruck, O. (2017). Springer Handbook of Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-42928-1"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2406","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JB003629","article-title":"Troposphere Mapping Functions for GPS and Very Long Baseline Interferometry from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Operational Analysis Data","volume":"111","author":"Boehm","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e076","DOI":"10.3989\/ic.13.172","article-title":"Methodology for Designing, Observing and Computing of Underground Geodetic Networks of Large Tunnels for High-Speed Railways","volume":"67","author":"Velasco","year":"2015","journal-title":"Inf. Constr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1179\/1752270615Y.0000000043","article-title":"Use of the Gyrotheodolite in Underground Networks of Long High-Speed Railway Tunnels","volume":"48","author":"Prieto","year":"2016","journal-title":"Surv. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"(2021, June 03). ArcGIS for Desktop. Available online: https:\/\/desktop.arcgis.com\/es\/arcmap\/10.3\/manage-data\/kml\/what-is-kml-.htm."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"(2021, June 02). Agisoft PhotoScan User Manual\u2014Professional Edition, Version 1.2. Available online: https:\/\/www.agisoft.com\/pdf\/photoscan-pro_1_2_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Jansa, J., and Kager, H. (1997). Volume 2, Advanced Methods and Applications. Photogrammetry, D\u00fcmmler."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"(1998). Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards, Part 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (Standard No. FGDC-STD-007.3-1998)."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Kraus, K. (1993). Volume 1, Fundamentals and Standard Processes. Photogrammetry, D\u00fcmmler."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.3609","article-title":"Mitigating Systematic Error in Topographic Models Derived from UAV and Ground-Based Image Networks","volume":"39","author":"James","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/12\/2877\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:32:39Z","timestamp":1760139159000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/12\/2877"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14122877"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14122877","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,16]]}}}