{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,8]],"date-time":"2026-04-08T16:23:54Z","timestamp":1775665434539,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]],"date-time":"2022-06-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655683200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["XDA22040601"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XDA22040601"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The refractive index structure constant (Cn2) is a key parameter used in describing the influence of turbulence on laser transmissions in the atmosphere. Three different methods for estimating Cn2 were analyzed in detail. A new method that uses a combination of these methods for continuous Cn2 profiling with both high temporal and spatial resolution is proposed and demonstrated. Under the assumption of the Kolmogorov \u201c2\/3 law\u201d, the Cn2 profile can be calculated by using the wind field and turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate (TKEDR) measured by coherent Doppler wind lidar (CDWL) and other meteorological parameters derived from a microwave radiometer (MWR). In a horizontal experiment, a comparison between the results from our new method and measurements made by a large aperture scintillometer (LAS) is conducted. The correlation coefficient, mean error, and standard deviation between them in a six-day observation are 0.8073, 8.18 \u00d7 10\u221216 m\u22122\/3 and 1.27 \u00d7 10\u221215 m\u22122\/3, respectively. In the vertical direction, the continuous profiling results of Cn2 and other turbulence parameters with high resolution in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) are retrieved. In addition, the limitation and uncertainty of this method under different circumstances were analyzed, which shows that the relative error of Cn2 estimation normally does not exceed 30% under the convective boundary layer (CBL).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14122951","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,21]],"date-time":"2022-06-21T04:39:55Z","timestamp":1655786395000},"page":"2951","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Turbulence Detection in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Using Coherent Doppler Wind Lidar and Microwave Radiometer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7336-2756","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pu","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"}]},{"given":"Jinlong","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"}]},{"given":"Kenan","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"}]},{"given":"Lu","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"}]},{"given":"Haiyun","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Earth and Space Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"},{"name":"Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the Microscale, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China"},{"name":"CAS Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology, Hefei 230026, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"771","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2489-0","article-title":"Night-time measurements of astronomical seeing at Dome A in Antarctica","volume":"583","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2081","DOI":"10.1007\/s00024-018-1822-0","article-title":"Aviation Turbulence: Dynamics, Forecasting, and Response to Climate Change","volume":"176","author":"Storer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pure Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4062","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.38.004062","article-title":"Atmospheric turbulence effects on the performance of a free space optical link employing orbital angular momentum multiplexing","volume":"38","author":"Ren","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1038\/521408a","article-title":"Laser weapons get real","volume":"521","author":"Extance","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"898","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2016.07.014","article-title":"Turbulent kinetic energy estimates from profiling wind LiDAR measurements and their potential for wind energy applications","volume":"99","author":"Kumer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1007\/s13351-020-9128-4","article-title":"Influence of Intermittent Turbulence on Air Pollution and Its Dispersion in Winter 2016\/2017 over Beijing, China","volume":"34","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8813","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.55.008813","article-title":"Quantification of optical turbulence in the ocean and its effects on beam propagation","volume":"55","author":"Nootz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.56.000336","article-title":"Combined effect of turbulence and aerosol on free-space optical links","volume":"56","author":"Libich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2966.2006.10337.x","article-title":"Determination of the profile of atmospheric optical turbulence strength from SLODAR data","volume":"369","author":"Butterley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10948","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.22.010948","article-title":"First on-sky results of the CO-SLIDAR Cn2 profiler","volume":"22","author":"Voyez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fusco, T., and Costille, A. (2010). Impact of Cn2 profile structure on Wide Field AO performance. Adapt. Opt. Syst. II, 7736.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.857489"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"77360J","article-title":"Accurate measurement of Cn2 profile with Shack-Hartmann data","volume":"7736","author":"Voyez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Adapt. Opt. Syst. III"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Otoniel Canuet, L.F. (2015). Atmospheric Turbulence Profile Modeling for Satellite-Ground Laser Communication, UPC, Escola d\u2019Enginyeria de Telecomunicaci\u00f3 i Aeroespacial de Castelldefels."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beland, R.R. (1993). Propagation through Atmospheric Optical Turbulence, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/3.2543821.ch2"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"732402","article-title":"Near-ground vertical profile of refractive-index fluctuations","volume":"7324","author":"Andrews","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE\u2014Int. Soc. Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9932","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.55.009932","article-title":"Analysis of an optical turbulence profile using complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition","volume":"55","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12454","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.419823","article-title":"Reliable model to estimate the profile of the refractive index structure parameter (Cn2) and integrated astroclimatic parameters in the atmosphere","volume":"29","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4545","DOI":"10.1029\/JC079i030p04545","article-title":"A vertical profile of turbulence in atlantic air mass measured by balloon-borne radiosondes","volume":"79","author":"Barletti","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0046.1","article-title":"Derivation of clear-air turbulence parameters from high-resolution radiosonde data","volume":"34","author":"Martini","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4283","DOI":"10.1029\/2018JD029982","article-title":"Latitudinal and topographical variabilities of free atmospheric turbulence from high-resolution radiosonde data sets","volume":"124","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7553","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JD030287","article-title":"Characteristics of atmospheric turbulence retrieved from high vertical-resolution radiosonde data in the United States","volume":"124","author":"Ko","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, Y., Sheng, Z., and He, M. (2020). The First Observation of Turbulence in Northwestern China by a Near-Space High-Resolution Balloon Sensor. Sensors, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/s20030677"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vyhnalek, B.E. (2017). Path Profiles of Cn2 Derived from Radiometer Temperature Measurements and Geometrical Ray Tracing. Free-Space Laser Communication and Atmospheric Propagation XXIX, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2252278"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6934","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.58.006934","article-title":"Measuring the turbulence profile in the lower atmospheric boundary layer","volume":"58","author":"Paulson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Odintsov, S.L., Gladkikh, V.A., Kamardin, A.P., and Nevzorova, I.V. (2019). Determination of the Structural Characteristic of the Refractive Index of Optical Waves in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer with Remote Acoustic Sounding Facilities. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10110711"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.68.000334","article-title":"A saturation-resistant optical scintillometer to measure Cn2","volume":"68","author":"Ochs","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Andrews, L.C., Phillips, R.L., Crabbs, R., Wayne, D., Leclerc, T., and Sauer, P. (2012). Creating a Cn2 Profile as a Function of Altitude Using Scintillation Measurements Along a Slant Path. High Energy\/Average Power Lasers and Intense Beam Applications VI Atmospheric and Oceanic Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves VI, SPIE."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6833","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.26.006833","article-title":"Ground-based synchronous optical instrument for measuring atmospheric visibility and turbulence intensity: Theories, design and experiments","volume":"26","author":"Han","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"307","article-title":"Experimental validation of the differential image motion lidar concept","volume":"4377","author":"Roberts","year":"2001","journal-title":"Laser Radar Technol. Appl. VI"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101713","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.51.10.101713","article-title":"Development of a lidar technique for profiling optical turbulence","volume":"51","author":"Gimmestad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8402","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.52.008402","article-title":"Laser differential image-motion monitor for characterization of turbulence during free-space optical communication tests","volume":"52","author":"Brown","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3445","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.38.003445","article-title":"Development of a differential column image motion light detection and ranging for measuring turbulence profiles","volume":"38","author":"Jing","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020101","DOI":"10.3788\/COL201715.020101","article-title":"Retrieval of Cn2 profile from differential column image motion lidar using the regularization method","volume":"15","author":"Cheng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chin. Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aristidi, E., Ziad, A., Chabe, J., Fantei-Caujolle, Y., Renaud, C., and Giordano, C. (2019). A generalized differential image motion monitor. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1093\/mnras\/stz854"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7574","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.384504","article-title":"PML: A generalized monitor of atmospheric turbulence profile with high vertical resolution","volume":"59","author":"Chabe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4429","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.41.004429","article-title":"Refractive turbulence strength estimation based on the laser echo signal amplification effect","volume":"41","author":"Banakh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1134\/S0030400X16020028","article-title":"Lidar measurements of atmospheric backscattering amplification","volume":"120","author":"Banakh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1134\/S1024856018030120","article-title":"Turbulent Lidar: II-Experiment","volume":"31","author":"Razenkov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atmos. Ocean. Opt."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2170","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.50.002170","article-title":"Comments on \u201cAccuracy of Raman lidar water vapor calibration and its applicability to long-term measurements\u201d","volume":"50","author":"Whiteman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3541","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.42.003541","article-title":"Dual-frequency Doppler lidar for wind detection with a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector","volume":"42","author":"Shangguan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.44.000311","article-title":"Meter-scale spatial-resolution-coherent Doppler wind lidar based on Golay coding","volume":"44","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5550","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.442121","article-title":"Spatial resolution enhancement of coherent Doppler wind lidar using differential correlation pair technique","volume":"46","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22679","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.022679","article-title":"Estimation of the turbulence energy dissipation rate in the atmospheric boundary layer from measurements of the radial wind velocity by micropulse coherent Doppler lidar","volume":"25","author":"Banakh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banakh, V.A., Smalikho, I.N., and Falits, A.V. (2020). Wind-Temperature Regime and Wind Turbulence in a Stable Boundary Layer of the Atmosphere: Case Study. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12060955"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1511","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-14-1511-2021","article-title":"Estimation of the height of the turbulent mixing layer from data of Doppler lidar measurements using conical scanning by a probe beam","volume":"14","author":"Banakh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smalikho, I.N., and Banakh, V.A. (2020). Effect of Wind Transport of Turbulent Inhomogeneities on Estimation of the Turbulence Energy Dissipation Rate from Measurements by a Conically Scanning Coherent Doppler Lidar. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12172802"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banakh, V.A., Smalikho, I.N., Falits, A.V., and Sherstobitov, A.M. (2021). Estimating the Parameters of Wind Turbulence from Spectra of Radial Velocity Measured by a Pulsed Doppler Lidar. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13112071"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1134\/S1024856020020116","article-title":"Experimental Study of Aircraft Wake Vortices on the Airfield of Tolmachevo Airport in 2018","volume":"33","author":"Smalikho","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Ocean. Opt."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3303","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-3303-2019","article-title":"Relationship analysis of PM2.5 and boundary layer height using an aerosol and turbulence detection lidar","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, Y., Fan, S., Wang, L., Gao, Z., Zhang, Y., Zou, H., Miao, S., Li, Y., Huang, M., and Yim, S.H.L. (2020). Diurnal Evolution of the Wintertime Boundary Layer in Urban Beijing, China: Insights from Doppler Lidar and a 325-m Meteorological Tower. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12233935"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1920","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-021-1068-0","article-title":"Robust Solution for Boundary Layer Height Detections with Coherent Doppler Wind Lidar","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, J., Wu, K., Wei, T., Wang, L., Shu, Z., Yang, Y., and Xia, H. (2021). Cloud Seeding Evidenced by Coherent Doppler Wind Lidar. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193815"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15431","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-15431-2019","article-title":"Long-lived high-frequency gravity waves in the atmospheric boundary layer: Observations and simulations","volume":"19","author":"Jia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JA022127","article-title":"Lidar observations of persistent gravity waves with periods of 3-10 h in the Antarctic middle and upper atmosphere at McMurdo (77.83degS, 166.67degE)","volume":"121","author":"Cao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2577","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-16-0411.1","article-title":"Low-Level Jets over Uto, Finland, Based on Doppler Lidar Observations","volume":"56","author":"Tuononen","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banakh, V.A., and Smalikho, I.N. (2018). Lidar Studies of Wind Turbulence in the Stable Atmospheric Boundary Layer. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10081219"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31235","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.27.031235","article-title":"Simultaneous wind and rainfall detection by power spectrum analysis using a VAD scanning coherent Doppler lidar","volume":"27","author":"Wei","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37406","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.412809","article-title":"Identifying cloud, precipitation, windshear, and turbulence by deep analysis of the power spectrum of coherent Doppler wind lidar","volume":"28","author":"Yuan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20663","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.020663","article-title":"1.5 \u00b5m polarization coherent lidar incorporating time-division multiplexing","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29662","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.401054","article-title":"Inversion probability enhancement of all-fiber CDWL by noise modeling and robust fitting","volume":"28","author":"Wei","year":"2020","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2020.105005","article-title":"Analysis of convective instability data derived from a ground-based microwave radiometer before triggering operations for artificial lightning","volume":"243","author":"Pan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112062000518","article-title":"A refinement of previous hypotheses concerning the local structure of turbulence in a viscous incompressible fluid at high reynolds number","volume":"13","author":"Kolmogorov","year":"1962","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tatarskii, V.I. (1961). Wave Propagation in a Turbulent Medium, McGraw-Hill.","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3057286"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andrews, L.C., and Phillips, R.L. (2005). Laser Beam Propagation through Random Media, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/3.626196"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAA.387211","article-title":"New Cn2 statistical model based on first radiosonde turbulence observation over Lhasa","volume":"37","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. A\u2014Opt. Image Sci. Vis."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.27.000155","article-title":"Outer scale of turbulence appropriate to modeling refractive-index structure profiles","volume":"27","author":"Coulman","year":"1988","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"Dewan, E.M., Beland, R., and Brown, J. (1993). A Model for Cn2 (Optical Turbulence) Profiles Using Radiosonde Data, Directorate of Geophysics."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stull, R.B. (1988). An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, Kluwer Academic.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-3027-8"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Tatarskii, V.I. (1971). The Effects of the Turbulent Atmosphere on Wave Propagation, Israel Program for Scientific Translations."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1017\/S002211200999293X","article-title":"On the turbulent Prandtl number in homogeneous stably stratified turbulence","volume":"644","author":"Venayagamoorthy","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2649","DOI":"10.1175\/JPO-D-18-0139.1","article-title":"Mixing Coefficient in Stably Stratified Flows","volume":"48","author":"Kantha","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2018.09.015","article-title":"Turbulent Prandtl number in the atmospheric boundary layer\u2014where are we now?","volume":"216","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Atmos. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luce, H., Kantha, L., Hashiguchi, H., and Lawrence, D. (2019). Estimation of Turbulence Parameters in the Lower Troposphere from ShUREX (2016\u20132017) UAV Data. Atmosphere, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos10070384"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.2937","article-title":"The non-local character of turbulence asymmetry in the convective atmospheric boundary layer","volume":"143","author":"Ghannam","year":"2017","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1966)023<0503:TCGHFI>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The Counter-Gradient Heat Flux in the Lower Atmosphere and in the Laboratory","volume":"23","author":"Deardorff","year":"1966","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2311","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-19-0274.1","article-title":"On the Relationship between the TKE Dissipation Rate and the Temperature Structure Function Parameter in the Convective Boundary Layer","volume":"77","author":"Luce","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"(2022, June 16). DAVIS6162: Wireless Vantage Pro2 Plus Support Documents. Available online: https:\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0515\/5992\/3873\/files\/07395.234_Manual_VP2__RevZ_web.pdf?v=1647548782."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"(2022, June 16). LAS MkII Scintillometer\u2014Manual. Available online: https:\/\/www.kippzonen.com\/Download\/598\/LAS-MkII-Scintillometer-Manual."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2008.09.080","article-title":"Urban aerosol evolution and particle formation during wintertime temperature inversions","volume":"43","author":"Olofson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9327","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-19-0278.1","article-title":"The Climatology of Lower Tropospheric Temperature Inversions in China from Radiosonde Measurements: Roles of Black Carbon, Local Meteorology, and Large-Scale Subsidence","volume":"33","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-008-9310-1","article-title":"Microstructure of turbulence in the stably stratified boundary layer","volume":"129","author":"Sorbjan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Bound.-Layer Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L03801","DOI":"10.1029\/2011GL050413","article-title":"Stability and turbulence in the atmospheric boundary layer: A comparison of remote sensing and tower observations","volume":"39","author":"Friedrich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0037.1","article-title":"Fine Structure, Instabilities, and Turbulence in the Lower Atmosphere: High-Resolution In Situ Slant-Path Measurements with the DataHawk UAV and Comparisons with Numerical Modeling","volume":"35","author":"Balsley","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4191","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-10-4191-2017","article-title":"Measurements of wind turbulence parameters by a conically scanning coherent Doppler lidar in the atmospheric boundary layer","volume":"10","author":"Smalikho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1994)011<1517:POACDL>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Performance of a 2-\u00b5m Coherent Doppler Lidar for Wind Measurements","volume":"11","author":"Frehlich","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1109\/36.210440","article-title":"Discrete spectral peak estimation in incoherent backscatter heterodyne lidar. I. Spectral accumulation and the Cramer-Rao lower bound","volume":"31","author":"Rye","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1109\/36.210441","article-title":"Discrete spectral peak estimation in incoherent backscatter heterodyne lidar. II. Correlogram accumulation","volume":"31","author":"Rye","year":"1993","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1","DOI":"10.1017\/jfm.2016.340","article-title":"On the flux Richardson number in stably stratified turbulence","volume":"798","author":"Venayagamoorthy","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Banakh, V.A., Smalikho, I.N., and Falits, A.V. (2020). Remote Sensing of Stable Boundary Layer of Atmosphere. EPJ Web of Conferences, EDP Sciences.","DOI":"10.1051\/epjconf\/202023706015"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112061000305","article-title":"On the stability of heterogeneous shear flows","volume":"10","author":"Miles","year":"1961","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Stull, R. (1998). An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, Kluwer Academic Publishers."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10313","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JD023438","article-title":"Comparison of atmospheric profiles between microwave radiometer retrievals and radiosonde soundings","volume":"120","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Korotkova, O. (2010). Atmospheric Channel Characterization for ORCA Testing at NTTR. Atmospheric and Oceanic Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves IV, SPIE."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/12\/2951\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:36:05Z","timestamp":1760139365000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/12\/2951"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14122951"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14122951","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,20]]}}}