{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T17:21:21Z","timestamp":1770139281693,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,30]],"date-time":"2022-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1659139200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"German Research Foundation","award":["RA 496\/26\u20132"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RA 496\/26\u20132"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this study, we investigate GPR measurements in freshwater of less than 5 m at four different locations to derive rules of thumb in terms of depth penetration, resolution, and material contrasts of the method for 200 and 400 MHz antennas under field conditions. The objective is to improve the attractiveness of the method for archaeological issues in water, as there are hardly any studies on this subject so far. The depth penetration of 2\u20134 m is negligibly influenced by the choice of the 200 or 400 MHz antenna. Organic material in the water column also does not affect the water depth but offers new fields of applications for mapping and volume estimation of biomass in lakes with GPR. The horizontal resolution in the cm range in the direction of the profile and in the dm range across the profile could not be improved by the narrow antenna radiation pattern of &lt;30\u00b0 at the 3 dB level. In the crossline direction, the use of an antenna array would be necessary here. Still, the narrow antenna pattern reduces side reflections. Most common archaeological material contrasts can be resolved with the method. The method shows reflection coefficients &gt;0.1 for materials of &lt;80% porosity to the water column and for materials of &lt;25% porosity and of &gt;45% porosity to water-saturated sand. Large reflection coefficients also show, for example, granite to sand and gyttja to wood. The water column has a considerable effect on the data quality of the 400 MHz antenna from a depth of 2 m due to the antenna ringing. Furthermore, multiples must be expected in a water column &lt;0.5 m. The method can especially complement the common geophysical methods of seismics and geoelectrics to exclude material ambiguities. The major advantage is the simple setting of the land equipment in the water.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14153659","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,1]],"date-time":"2022-08-01T04:04:00Z","timestamp":1659326640000},"page":"3659","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Ground Penetrating Radar Measurements in Shallow Water Environments\u2014A Case Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9042-6704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annika","family":"Fediuk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geosciences, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Otto-Hahn-Platz 1, 24118 Kiel, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2275-704X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tina","family":"Wunderlich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geosciences, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Otto-Hahn-Platz 1, 24118 Kiel, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5128-351X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dennis","family":"Wilken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geosciences, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Otto-Hahn-Platz 1, 24118 Kiel, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4720-6906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wolfgang","family":"Rabbel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geosciences, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Otto-Hahn-Platz 1, 24118 Kiel, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"3","article-title":"A communication on an archaeological radar experiment at Chaco Canyon, New Mexico","volume":"11","author":"Vickers","year":"1975","journal-title":"MASCA Newsl."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03374467","article-title":"Ground\u2013penetrating radar and its application to a historical archaeological site","volume":"11","author":"Kenyon","year":"1977","journal-title":"Hist. Archaeol."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Bevan, B.W. (1977). Gound\u2013penetrating radar at Valley Forge, Geophysical Survey System."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2018.04.004","article-title":"Marine seismic investigation of the ancient Kane harbour bay, Turkey","volume":"511","author":"Fediuk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Quat. Int."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s11001-005-3715-8","article-title":"Design of a 3D Chirp sub\u2013bottom imaging system","volume":"26","author":"Bull","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mar. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apacoust.2006.08.010","article-title":"3D high\u2013resolution acoustic imaging of the sub\u2013seabed","volume":"69","author":"Gutowski","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Acoust."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1002\/gea.21471","article-title":"The purpose and age of underwater walls in the Bay of Elaia of Western Turkey: A multidisciplinary approach","volume":"29","author":"Seeliger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geoarchaeology"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"1","article-title":"Imaging of Shallow Underwater Ancient Ruins with ERT and Seismic Methods","volume":"Volume 1","author":"Kritikakis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 8th Congress of the Balkan Geophysical Society"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simyrdanis, K., Papadopoulos, N., and Cantoro, G. (2016). Shallow off\u2013shore archaeological prospection with 3\u2013D electrical resistivity tomography: The case of Olous (Modern Elounda), Greece. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8110897"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/S1355-0306(06)71602-1","article-title":"Under\u2013water scene investigation using ground penetrating radar (GPR) in the search for a sunken jet ski, Northern Ireland","volume":"46","author":"Ruffell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sci. Justice"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Delaney, A.J., Sellmann, P.V., and Arcone, S.A. (1992, January 8\u201313). Sub\u2013bottom profiling: A comparison of short\u2013pulse radar and accoustic data. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar; European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers, Rovaniemi, Finland."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-7037(86)90346-7","article-title":"Biogenic methane formation in marine and freshwater environments: CO2 reduction vs. acetate fermentation\u2014Isotope evidence","volume":"50","author":"Whiticar","year":"1986","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.3997\/1873-0604.2010006","article-title":"An integrated acoustic and electromagnetic wave-based technique to estimate subbottom sediment properties in a freshwater environment","volume":"8","author":"Lin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Kovacs, A. (1991). Impulse Radar Bathymetric Profiling in Weed-Infested Fresh Water, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. Available online: https:\/\/erdc-library.erdc.dren.mil\/jspui\/handle\/11681\/9112."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shields, G., Grossman, S., Lockheed, M., and Humphrey, A. (2004, January 22\u201326). Waterborne geophysical surveys on shallow river impoundments. Proceedings of the 17th Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems (SAGEEP), Colorado Springs, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.3997\/2214-4609-pdb.186.POS08"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fediuk, A., Wilken, D., Wunderlich, T., and Rabbel, W. (2020). Physical Parameters and Contrasts of Wooden Objects in Lacustrine Environment: Ground Penetrating Radar and Geoelectrics. Geosciences, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences10040146"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1002\/arp.1735","article-title":"Imaging a medieval shipwreck with the new PingPong 3D marine reflection seismic system","volume":"26","author":"Wilken","year":"2019","journal-title":"Archaeol. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fediuk, A., Wilken, D., Thorwart, M., Wunderlich, T., Erkul, E., and Rabbel, W. (2020). The Applicability of an Inverse Schlumberger Array for Near-Surface Targets in Shallow Water Environments. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12132132"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Jol, H.M., and Albrecht, A. (2004, January 21\u201324). Searching for submerged lumber with ground penetrating radar: Rib lake, Wisconsin, USA. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Abramov, A.P., and Vasiliev, A.G. (2004, January 21\u201324). Underwater ground penetrating radar in archaeological investigation below sea bottom. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"18","article-title":"Ground penetrating radar principles, procedures and applications","volume":"278","author":"Annan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Softw."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"51","article-title":"Georadar in Binnengew\u00e4ssern","volume":"2","author":"Leckebusch","year":"1998","journal-title":"Arch\u00e4ologie Unter Wasser"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Fuchs, M., Beres, M., and Anselmetti, F. (2004, January 21\u201324). Sedimentological studies of western Swiss lakes with high-resolution reflection seismic and amphibious GPR profiling. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"WA221","DOI":"10.1190\/1.3467782","article-title":"GPR characterization of a lacustrine UXO site","volume":"75","author":"Arcone","year":"2010","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1515","DOI":"10.1109\/JRPROC.1962.288195","article-title":"Gross errors in height indication from pulsed radar altimeters operating over thick ice or snow","volume":"50","author":"Waite","year":"1962","journal-title":"Proc. IRE"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"117","article-title":"Impulse radar applied to ice thickness measurements and freshwater bathymetry","volume":"77","author":"Annan","year":"1977","journal-title":"Geol. Surv. Can. Rep. Act. Pap."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2925","DOI":"10.1029\/92WR01308","article-title":"Short-pulse radar detection of groundwater in the Sagavanirktok River floodplain in early spring","volume":"28","author":"Arcone","year":"1992","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Stevens, C., Moorman, B., and Solomon, S. (July, January 29). Detection of frozen and unfrozen interfaces with ground penetrating radar in the nearshore zone of the Mackenzie Delta, Canada. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Permafrost (ICOP), Fairbanks, AK, USA."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Powers, C., Haeni, F., and Smith, S. (1999, January 14\u201318). Integrated use of continuous seismic-reflection profiling and ground-penetrating radar methods at John\u2019s Pond, Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Proceedings of the 12th EEGS Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems, Oakland, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.3997\/2214-4609-pdb.202.1999_041"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1306\/121802730559","article-title":"High-resolution subsurface (GPR) imaging and sedimentology of coastal ponds, Maine, USA: Implications for Holocene back-barrier evolution","volume":"73","author":"Buynevich","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Sediment. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1007920816271","article-title":"Bathymetric mapping and sub-bottom profiling through lake ice with ground-penetrating radar","volume":"18","author":"Moorman","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Paleolimnol."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Gorin, S.R., and Haeni, F.P. (1989). Use of Surface-Geophysical Methods to Assess Riverbed Scour at Bridge Piers, Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W07422","DOI":"10.1029\/2005WR004430","article-title":"Use of radars to monitor stream discharge by noncontact methods","volume":"42","author":"Costa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Park, I., Lee, J., and Cho, W. (2004, January 21\u201324). Assessment of bridge scour and riverbed variation by a ground penetrating radar. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar, Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jappgeo.2011.09.016","article-title":"Case study: A GPR survey on a morainic lake in northern Italy for bathymetry, water volume and sediment characterization","volume":"81","author":"Sambuelli","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1002\/ppp.430","article-title":"High-resolution seismic and ground penetrating radar\u2013geophysical profiling of a thermokarst lake in the western Lena Delta, Northern Siberia","volume":"13","author":"Schwamborn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Permafr. Periglac. Process."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/0926-9851(95)90028-4","article-title":"Numerical studies of the radiation patterns of resistively loaded dipoles","volume":"33","author":"Arcone","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sellmann, P., Delaney, A., and Arcone, S. (1992). Sub-Bottom Surveying in Lakes with Ground-Penetrating Radar, US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA252860"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corradini, E., Dreibrodt, S., Erkul, E., Gro\u00df, D., L\u00fcbke, H., Panning, D., Pickartz, N., Thorwart, M., V\u00f6tt, A., and Willersh\u00e4user, T. (2020). Understanding Wetlands Stratigraphy: Geophysics and Soil Parameters for Investigating Ancient Basin Development at Lake Duvensee. Geosciences, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/geosciences10080314"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butler, D.K. (2005). Ground Penetrating Radar. Near-Surface Geophysics, Society of Exploration Geophysicists.","DOI":"10.1190\/1.9781560801719"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.3997\/1873-0604.2012025","article-title":"Absorption and frequency shift of GPR signals in sandy and silty soils: Empirical relations between quality factor Q, complex permittivity and clay and water contents","volume":"11","author":"Wunderlich","year":"2013","journal-title":"Near Surf. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2257","DOI":"10.1063\/1.432416","article-title":"Complex permittivity of water at 25 \u00b0C","volume":"64","author":"Schwan","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6n, J. (1983). Petrophysik: Physikalische Eigenschaften Von Gesteinen Und Mineralen, Akademie-Verlag.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783112707715"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1021\/je00058a001","article-title":"Complex permittivity of water as a function of frequency and temperature","volume":"34","author":"Kaatze","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Chem. Eng. Data"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1984.1143307","article-title":"Directive properties of antennas for transmission into a material half-space","volume":"32","author":"Smith","year":"1984","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1177\/095968369700700208","article-title":"The water content of lake sediments and its relationship to other physical parameters: An alpine case study","volume":"7","author":"Menounos","year":"1997","journal-title":"Holocene"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/S0144-8609(01)00068-1","article-title":"Water content, organic carbon and dry bulk density in flooded sediments","volume":"25","author":"Avnimelech","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aquac. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1190\/1.1438217","article-title":"Elastic wave velocities in heterogeneous and porous media","volume":"21","author":"Wyllie","year":"1956","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"Kn\u00f6del, K., Krummel, H., and Lange, G. (2013). Handbuch zur Erkundung des Untergrundes von Deponien und Altlasten: Band 3: Geophysik, Springer."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mavko, G., Mukerji, T., and Dvorkin, J. (2020). The Rock Physics Handbook, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108333016"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"B95","DOI":"10.1190\/1.3119262","article-title":"Waterborne GPR survey for estimating bottom-sediment variability: A survey on the Po River, Turin, Italy","volume":"74","author":"Sambuelli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Geophysics"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"117","article-title":"Radar range analysis for geological materials","volume":"77","author":"Annan","year":"1977","journal-title":"Geol. Surv. Can."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1002\/esp.4257","article-title":"Mechanisms linking active rock glaciers and impounded surface water formation in high-mountain areas","volume":"43","author":"Colombo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Process. Landf."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1007\/s11220-005-0008-x","article-title":"Application of GPR in the study of a modern alluvial megafan: The case of the Taquari River in Pantanal Wetland, west-central Brazil","volume":"6","author":"Porsani","year":"2005","journal-title":"Subsurf. Sens. Technol. Appl."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2014.03.041","article-title":"Lacustrine flow (divers, side scan sonar, hydrogeology, water penetrating radar) used to understand the location of a drowned person","volume":"513","author":"Ruffell","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2478.1990.tb01876.x","article-title":"Measured underwater near-field E-patterns of a pulsed, horizontal dipole antenna in air: Comparison with the theory of the continuous wave, infinitesimal electric dipole","volume":"38","author":"Wensink","year":"1990","journal-title":"Geophys. Prospect."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"J1","DOI":"10.1190\/1.2890776","article-title":"Complex permittivity and clay mineralogy of grain-size fractions in a wet silt soil","volume":"73","author":"Arcone","year":"2008","journal-title":"Geophysics"}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/15\/3659\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:59:46Z","timestamp":1760140786000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/15\/3659"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,30]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14153659"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14153659","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,30]]}}}