{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,22]],"date-time":"2026-04-22T22:47:31Z","timestamp":1776898051981,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,23]],"date-time":"2022-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661212800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U2006207"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2006207"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["61971455"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61971455"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U2106211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2106211"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62131019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62131019"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["CEMEE2022K0303B"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CEMEE2022K0303B"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory Foundation of CEMEE","award":["U2006207"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2006207"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory Foundation of CEMEE","award":["61971455"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61971455"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory Foundation of CEMEE","award":["U2106211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2106211"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory Foundation of CEMEE","award":["62131019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62131019"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory Foundation of CEMEE","award":["CEMEE2022K0303B"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CEMEE2022K0303B"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Wind wave-induced artifact surface velocity (WASV) is an important component of the sea surface motions detected by synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems. Understanding the characteristics of the interference of WASV on SAR current velocity estimates is necessary to improve the accuracy of retrievals. In this study, we assessed and analyzed the sensitivity of WASV in C-band along-track interferometric (ATI) SAR to radar configuration, wind field, swell field, and a wave spectrum model. Results showed that the influence of wind speed on WASV increased with the current velocity. The swell also affected WASV, especially at higher wind speeds; WASV was more strongly influenced by swell amplitude than by swell wavelength. In terms of radar configurations, results showed that VV polarization was more suitable than HH polarization in the estimation of WASV. The interference of WASV was minimal at moderate incidence angles (around 40\u00b0), and an appropriate ATI baseline selection was also given. The WASV was more strongly influenced by sea states than by the wave spectrum model or by a spreading function. The findings of this study improve our understanding of WASV and provide a reference for the design of future ATI SAR current measurement instruments and projects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14174135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,24]],"date-time":"2022-08-24T02:55:34Z","timestamp":1661309734000},"page":"4135","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Influence of Radar Parameters and Sea State on Wind Wave-Induced Velocity in C-Band ATI SAR Ocean Surface Currents"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2589-1500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rui","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"},{"name":"Technology Innovation Center for Ocean Telemetry, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"},{"name":"Technology Innovation Center for Ocean Telemetry, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chenghui","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"},{"name":"Technology Innovation Center for Ocean Telemetry, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaochen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Technology in Geo-Spatial Information Processing and Application Systems, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gui","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Genwang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"},{"name":"Technology Innovation Center for Ocean Telemetry, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Bao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"},{"name":"Technology Innovation Center for Ocean Telemetry, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao 266061, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2988","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2509781","article-title":"Surface Current Measurements Using X-Band Marine Radar with Vertical Polarization","volume":"54","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Geosci Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schwartz, M.L. (2005). Monitoring Coastal Geomorphology. Encyclopedia of Coastal Science, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-3880-1"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, H., Vandemark, D., Levin, J., and Wilkin, J. (2018). Examining the Accuracy of GlobCurrent Upper Ocean Velocity Data Products on the Northwestern Atlantic Shelf. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10081205"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1038\/315128a0","article-title":"Measurement of surface currents in Liverpool Bay by high-frequency radar","volume":"315","author":"Prandle","year":"1985","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"411","article-title":"Ocean surface current radar (OSCR) vector measurements on the inner continental shelf","volume":"7","author":"Hammond","year":"1987","journal-title":"CSR"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1029\/2018GL081029","article-title":"Ocean Surface Wave-Current Signatures from Satellite Altimeter Measurements","volume":"46","author":"Quilfen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6505","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2728824","article-title":"Ocean Surface Current Inversion Method for a Doppler Scatterometer","volume":"55","author":"Bao","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020GL090116","DOI":"10.1029\/2020GL090116","article-title":"On the Surface Current Measurement Capabilities of Spaceborne Doppler Scatterometry","volume":"47","author":"Wineteer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2019JC015958","DOI":"10.1029\/2019JC015958","article-title":"Ocean Surface Currents Reconstruction: Spectral Characterization of the Transfer Function Between SST and SSH","volume":"125","author":"Tandeo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Isern-Fontanet, J., Garc\u00eda-Ladona, E., Gonz\u00e1lez-Haro, C., Turiel, A., Rosell-Fieschi, M., Company, J.B., and Padial, A. (2021). High-Resolution Ocean Currents from Sea Surface Temperature Observations: The Catalan Sea (Western Mediterranean). Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13183635"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1038\/328707a0","article-title":"Interferometric radar measurement of ocean surface currents","volume":"328","author":"Goldstein","year":"1987","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3582","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2153864","article-title":"Retrieval of Sea Surface Range Velocities From Envisat ASAR Doppler Centroid Measurements","volume":"49","author":"Hansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2030885","article-title":"First Analysis of TerraSAR-X Along-Track InSAR-Derived Current Fields","volume":"48","author":"Romeiser","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112758","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2021.112758","article-title":"First multi-year assessment of Sentinel-1 radial velocity products using HF radar currents in a coastal environment","volume":"268","author":"Martin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2901","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2174998","article-title":"On the Use of Doppler Shift for Sea Surface Wind Retrieval From SAR","volume":"50","author":"Mouche","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1640","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC011459","article-title":"Wind-wave-induced velocity in ATI SAR ocean surface currents: First experimental evidence from an airborne campaign","volume":"121","author":"Martin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020JC016166","DOI":"10.1029\/2020JC016166","article-title":"Wind Wave Effects on Remote Sensing of Sea Surface Currents From SAR","volume":"125","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.5194\/os-14-337-2018","article-title":"Measuring currents, ice drift, and waves from space: The Sea Surface KInematics Multiscale monitoring (SKIM) concept","volume":"14","author":"Ardhuin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2759","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2265659","article-title":"Quality Assessment of Surface Current Fields From TerraSAR-X and TanDEM-X Along-Track Interferometry and Doppler Centroid Analysis","volume":"52","author":"Romeiser","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5011","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2016.2581188","article-title":"Under What Conditions SAR Along-Track Interferometry is Suitable for Assessment of Tidal Energy Resource","volume":"9","author":"Ferreira","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1109\/36.823940","article-title":"Numerical study on the along-track interferometric radar imaging mechanism of oceanic surface currents","volume":"38","author":"Romeiser","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2018.06.013","article-title":"Simultaneous ocean surface current and wind vectors retrieval with squinted SAR interferometry: Geophysical inversion and performance assessment","volume":"216","author":"Martin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7762","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2021.3099105","article-title":"Observing Sea Surface Current by Gaofen-3 Satellite Along-Track Interferometric SAR Experimental Mode","volume":"14","author":"Yuan","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Obs. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2018, March 16). Scientific Assessment of TSCV Retrieval from Stereo-SAR: A critical Review. Available online: https:\/\/norceresearch.brage.unit.no\/norceresearch-xmlui\/bitstream\/handle\/11250\/2649700\/Norut_rapport_4-2018.pdf?sequence=1."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stratton, J.A. (2015). Plane Waves in Unbounded, Isotropic Media. Electromagnetic Theory, Wiley-IEEE Press.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119134640.ch5"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"FET 2-1","article-title":"A semiempirical model of the normalized radar cross-section of the sea surface 1. Background model","volume":"108","author":"Kudryavtsev","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25237","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC00190","article-title":"An improved composite surface model for the radar backscattering cross section of the ocean surface: 1. Theory of the model and optimization\/validation by scatterometer data","volume":"102","author":"Romeiser","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25251","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC00191","article-title":"An improved composite surface model for the radar backscattering cross section of the ocean surface: 2. Model response to surface roughness variations and the radar imaging of underwater bottom topography","volume":"102","author":"Romeiser","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1109\/36.298008","article-title":"Precision SAR processing using chirp scaling","volume":"32","author":"Raney","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13644","DOI":"10.3390\/s150613644","article-title":"Time-Domain Simulation of Along-Track Interferometric SAR for Moving Ocean Surfaces","volume":"15","author":"Yoshida","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1007\/s00021-015-0219-4","article-title":"Gerstner\u2019s Water Wave and Mass Transport","volume":"17","author":"Stuhlmeier","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Math. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/0039-6028(66)90003-3","article-title":"The surface plasmon dispersion relation for an electron gas","volume":"4","author":"Ritchie","year":"1966","journal-title":"Surf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"509","article-title":"Directional spectra of wind-generated ocean waves","volume":"315","author":"Donelan","year":"1985","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Math. Phys. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1","article-title":"Measurements of wind-wave growth and swell decay during the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP)","volume":"8","author":"Hasselmann","year":"1973","journal-title":"Deut. Hydrogr. Z."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1503","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1981)011<1503:ASOTGO>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Study of the Growth of the Wave Spectrum with Fetch","volume":"11","author":"Kahma","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022112085002221","article-title":"Spectral and statistical properties of the equilibrium range in wind-generated gravity waves","volume":"156","author":"Phillips","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Fluid Mech."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15781","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC00467","article-title":"A unified directional spectrum for long and short wind-driven waves","volume":"102","author":"Elfouhaily","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.1985.1145133","article-title":"A physical radar cross-section model for a wind-driven sea with swell","volume":"10","author":"Durden","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.1966.1138626","article-title":"A note on the theory of scattering from an irregular surface","volume":"14","author":"Kodis","year":"1966","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2162245","article-title":"Simulation of L-Band Bistatic Returns from the Ocean Surface: A Facet Approach with Application to Ocean GNSS Reflectometry","volume":"50","author":"Clarizia","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4450","DOI":"10.3390\/s130404450","article-title":"SAR Image Simulation in the Time Domain for Moving Ocean Surfaces","volume":"13","author":"Yoshida","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4500","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2692880","article-title":"Design Principles and Considerations for Spaceborne ATI SAR-Based Observations of Ocean Surface Velocity Vectors","volume":"55","author":"Wollstadt","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8584","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2019.2921705","article-title":"Measurements of Sea Surface Currents in the Baltic Sea Region Using Spaceborne Along-Track InSAR","volume":"57","author":"Elyouncha","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5223412","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2022.3147490","article-title":"Retrieval of Wind and Total Surface Current Vectors Using Experimental Bidirectional Along-Track Interferometric TanDEM-X Data","volume":"60","author":"Caldarella","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JC012585","article-title":"Propagation Route and Speed of Swell in the Indian Ocean","volume":"123","author":"Zheng","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Ocean."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1260\/1759-3131.2.2.87","article-title":"Swell Propagation over Indian Ocean Region","volume":"2","author":"Bhowmick","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Ocean Clim. Syst."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4204812","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2021.3126327","article-title":"Effects of Ocean Wave Directional Spectra on Doppler Retrievals of Ocean Surface Current","volume":"60","author":"Miao","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1976)006<0200:APWPM>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A Parametric Wave Prediction Model","volume":"6","author":"Hasselmann","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1980)010<1264:DWSODJ>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Directional Wave Spectra Observed during JONSWAP 1973","volume":"10","author":"Hasselmann","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/17\/4135\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:14:01Z","timestamp":1760141641000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/17\/4135"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,23]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14174135"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14174135","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,23]]}}}