{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,17]],"date-time":"2025-11-17T17:21:27Z","timestamp":1763400087847,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,28]],"date-time":"2022-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1661644800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research program (STEP)","award":["2019QZKK0102","U2142209","2021M703558"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019QZKK0102","U2142209","2021M703558"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019QZKK0102","U2142209","2021M703558"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019QZKK0102","U2142209","2021M703558"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002858","name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2019QZKK0102","U2142209","2021M703558"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019QZKK0102","U2142209","2021M703558"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002858","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The knowledge of soil apparent thermal diffusivity (k) is important for investigating soil surface heat transfer and temperature. Long-term k determined using the near-surface soil temperature is limited on the Tibetan Plateau (TP). The main objective of this study is to determine k with a conduction\u2013convection method using the near-surface soil temperature measured at three sites during 2014\u20132016 on the TP. The hourly, daily, and monthly k values of the 0.0 m to 0.20 m layer were obtained. The hourly and daily k values ranged from 0.3 \u00d7 10\u22126 m2 s\u22121 to 1.9 \u00d7 10\u22126 m2 s\u22121 at the wet site, and from 1.0 \u00d7 10\u22127 m2 s\u22121 to 4.0 \u00d7 10\u22127 m2 s\u22121 at the two dry sites. For the monthly timescale, k ranged from 0.4 (\u00b10.0) \u00d7 10\u22126 m2 s\u22121 to 1.1 (\u00b10.2) \u00d7 10\u22126 m2 s\u22121 at the wet site, and varied between 1.7 (\u00b10.0) \u00d7 10\u22127 m2 s\u22121 and 3.3 (\u00b10.2) \u00d7 10\u22127 m2 s\u22121 at the two dry sites. The k was not constant over a day, and it varied seasonally to different degrees at different sites and years. The variation of k with soil moisture (\u03b8) appeared to be roughly similar for unfrozen soil at these sites and years, namely, k increased sharply before reaching the peak as \u03b8 increased, and then it tended to be stable or varied slightly with further increases in \u03b8. This variation trend was consistent with previous studies. However, the relationship between k and \u03b8 changed when soil temperature was below 0 \u00b0C, because ice had higher k than water. The correlation coefficients (r) between k and \u03b8 ranged from 0.37 to 0.80, and 0.80 to 0.92 on hourly and monthly timescales, respectively. The monthly and annual k values were significantly correlated (r: 0.73~0.93) to the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The results broaden our understanding of the relationship between in situ k and \u03b8. The presented values of k at various timescales can be used as soil parameters when modeling land\u2013atmosphere interactions at these TP regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14174238","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,30]],"date-time":"2022-08-30T01:37:55Z","timestamp":1661823475000},"page":"4238","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Determination of Long-Term Soil Apparent Thermal Diffusivity Using Near-Surface Soil Temperature on the Tibetan Plateau"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Bing","family":"Tong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Horton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agronomy Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA"}]},{"given":"Lingen","family":"Bian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8530-8976","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianping","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"349","article-title":"Soil thermal diffusivity","volume":"Volume 5","author":"Dane","year":"2002","journal-title":"Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 4\u2014Physical Methods"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-232X(94)00021-O","article-title":"Considerations in determining thermal diffusivity from temperature time series using finite difference methods","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(95)02323-2","article-title":"Apparent soil thermal diffusivity, a case study: HAPEX-Sahel experiment","volume":"81","author":"Monteny","year":"1996","journal-title":"Agric. For. Meteor."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Dickinson, R.E., Henderson-Sellers, A., and Kennedy, P.J. (1993). Biosphere\u2013Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (BATS) Version 1e as Coupled to the NCAR Community Climate Model, NCAR. NCAR Technical Note NCAR\/TN-3871STR."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"676","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1996)009<0676:ARLSPF>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"A revised land surface parameterization (SiB2) for atmospheric GCMs. Part I: Model formulation","volume":"9","author":"Sellers","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Climate"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0493(2001)129<0569:CAALSH>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Coupling an advanced land surface\u2013hydrology model with the Penn State\u2013NCAR MM5 modeling system: Part I. Model implementation and sensitivity","volume":"129","author":"Chen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mon. Wea. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-84-8-1013","article-title":"The Common Land Model","volume":"84","author":"Dai","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-12-033.1","article-title":"Validation of Noah-simulated soil temperature in the North American Land Data Assimilation System phase 2","volume":"52","author":"Xia","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D16112","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JD013278","article-title":"Impact of wave phase difference between soil surface heat flux and soil surface temperature on soil surface energy balance closure","volume":"115","author":"Gao","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1793","DOI":"10.1007\/s12040-014-0509-x","article-title":"Estimation of soil moisture and its effect on soil thermal characteristics at Astronomical Observatory, Thiruvananthapuram, south Kerala","volume":"123","author":"Roxy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Earth Syst. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3172","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-11103-1","article-title":"Controls of soil organic matter on soil thermal dynamics in the northern high latitudes","volume":"10","author":"Zhu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1994.03615995005800050002x","article-title":"Measurement of soil thermal properties with a dual-probe heat-pulse method","volume":"58","author":"Bristow","year":"1994","journal-title":"Soil. Sci. Soc. Amer. J."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1999.03615995006300030005x","article-title":"Measuring soil water content, electrical conductivity and thermal properties with a thermo-time domain reflectometry probe","volume":"63","author":"Ren","year":"1999","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Campbell, G.S. (1985). Soil Physics with BASIC: Transport Models for Soil\u2013Plant Systems, Elsevier Science."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1134\/S1064229309020070","article-title":"Parameterization and mathematical modeling of the dependence of soil thermal diffusivity on the water content","volume":"42","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eurasian Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biosystemseng.2017.06.011","article-title":"Estimating soil thermal diffusivity at different water contents from easily available data on soil texture, bulk density, and organic carbon content","volume":"168","author":"Arkhangelskaya","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biosyst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-17-0131.1","article-title":"An Empirical Model for Estimating Soil Thermal Diffusivity from Texture, Bulk Density, and Degree of Saturation","volume":"19","author":"Xie","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.5194\/esurf-10-687-2022","article-title":"Probabilistic estimation of depth-resolved profiles of soil thermal diffusivity from temperature time series","volume":"10","author":"Brunetti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Earth Surf. Dynam."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JHM963.1","article-title":"Sensible heat observations reveal soil-water evaporation dynamics","volume":"9","author":"Heitman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2007.0283","article-title":"In situ monitoring of soil thermal properties and heat flux during freezing and thawing","volume":"72","author":"Ochsner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1983.03615995004700010005x","article-title":"Evaluation of methods for determining the apparent thermal diffusivity of soil near the surface","volume":"47","author":"Horton","year":"1983","journal-title":"Soil. Sci. Soc. Amer. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1923(95)02254-6","article-title":"Thermal soil properties for vineyard (EFEDA-I) and savanna (HAPEX-Sahel) sites","volume":"78","author":"Verhoef","year":"1996","journal-title":"Agric. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1097\/00010694-200302000-00004","article-title":"An analytical solution to one-dimensional thermal conduction-convection in soil","volume":"168","author":"Gao","year":"2003","journal-title":"Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D18105","DOI":"10.1029\/2008JD010285","article-title":"Comparison of two soil temperature algorithms for a bare ground site on the Loess Plateau in China","volume":"113","author":"Gao","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9569","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JD027290","article-title":"Determination of desert soil apparent thermal diffusivity using a conduction-convection algorithm","volume":"122","author":"Gao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res-Atmos."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-004-8661-5","article-title":"Determination of soil heat flux in a Tibetan short-grass prairie","volume":"114","author":"Gao","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bound Layer. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-015-0096-7","article-title":"Estimation from soil temperature of soil thermal diffusivity and heat flux in sub-surface layers","volume":"158","author":"An","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bound Layer. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"351","article-title":"Spatio-temporal distribution of thermal diffusivity in deep soil in Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau","volume":"5","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Pedol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Jury, W.A., and Horton, R. (2004). Soil Physics, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Van Wijk, W.R. (1963). Periodic temperature variations in a homogeneous soil. Physics of Plant Environment, North Holland Publishing Company."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Nerpin, S.V., and Chudnovskii, A.F. (1967). Physics of the soil. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Keter Press."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seemann, J. (1979). Measuring technology. Agrometeorology, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-67288-0"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"14","article-title":"A preliminary study on conductive and convective soil heat flux","volume":"13","author":"Fan","year":"1994","journal-title":"Plateau Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2015.11.078","article-title":"New Fourier-series-based analytical solution to the conduction\u2013convection equation to calculate soil temperature, determine soil thermal properties, or estimate water flux","volume":"95","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Heat Mass Tran."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1097\/SS.0b013e3181cdda3f","article-title":"Comparison of six algorithms to determine the soil apparent thermal diffusivity at a site in the Loess Plateau of China","volume":"175","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2016.07.005","article-title":"Comparison of different soil temperature algorithms in permafrost regions of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau of China","volume":"130","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1029\/TR035i001p00121","article-title":"Improved models of thermal diffusion in the soil","volume":"35","author":"Lettau","year":"1954","journal-title":"Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1097\/00010694-198904000-00002","article-title":"Determination of the apparent thermal diffusivity of a nonuniform soil","volume":"147","author":"Nassar","year":"1989","journal-title":"Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1097\/00010694-199003000-00001","article-title":"Determination of soil apparent thermal diffusivity from multiharmonic temperature analysis for nonuniform soils","volume":"149","author":"Nassar","year":"1990","journal-title":"Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2136\/vzj2013.03.0065","article-title":"Estimation of nonuniform soil thermal properties by harmonic analysis","volume":"12","author":"Ross","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vadose Zone J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1038\/454393a","article-title":"The third pole","volume":"454","author":"Qiu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.2151\/jmsj.82.1777","article-title":"The daytime evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer and convection over the Tibetan Plateau: Observations and simulations","volume":"82","author":"Yang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-004-0488-8","article-title":"Role of the Tibetan Plateau thermal forcing in the summer climate patterns over subtropical Asia","volume":"24","author":"Duan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clim. Dynam."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8495","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0029.1","article-title":"Impacts of Tibetan Plateau Snow Cover on the Interannual Variability of the East Asian Summer Monsoon","volume":"29","author":"Xiao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4243","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06762-5","article-title":"Influence of Tibetan Plateau snow cover on East Asian atmospheric circulation at medium-range time scales","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1998)055<1209:TEOSTC>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"The effect of soil thermal conductivity parameterization on surface energy fluxes and temperature","volume":"55","author":"Blackburn","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-17-0001.1","article-title":"Land\u2013atmosphere interactions: The LoCo perspective","volume":"99","author":"Santanello","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1007\/s10546-004-7403-z","article-title":"Variation of surface albedo and soil thermal parameters with soil moisture content at a semi-desert site on the western Tibetan Plateau","volume":"116","author":"Wang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Bound Layer. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1023\/B:BOUN.0000007224.08804.b8","article-title":"Parameters of land-surface processes for gobi in north-west China","volume":"110","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Bound. Layer Meteor."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-131X(199911)18:6<369::AID-FOR748>3.0.CO;2-K","article-title":"Dynamic harmonic regression","volume":"18","author":"Young","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Forecast."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Young, P.C., Taylor, C.J., Tych, W., Pegregal, D.J., and McKenna, P.G. (2010). The Captain Toolbox, Centre for Research on Environmental Systems and Statistics; Lancaster University, UL. Available online: http:\/\/www.es.lancs.ac.uk\/cres\/captain."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2937","DOI":"10.5194\/essd-12-2937-2020","article-title":"A long-term (2005\u20132016) dataset of hourly integrated land\u2013atmosphere interaction observations on the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Earth Syst. Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCallum, A.M., Andersen, M.S., Rau, G.C., and Acworth, R.I. (2012). A 1-D analytical method for estimating surface water\u2013groundwater interactions and effective thermal diffusivity using temperature time series. Water Resour. Res., 48.","DOI":"10.1029\/2012WR012007"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1029\/2012WR012380","article-title":"Solutions for the diurnally forced advection-diffusion equation to estimate bulk fluid velocity and diffusivity in streambeds from temperature time series","volume":"49","author":"Luce","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W10410","DOI":"10.1029\/2005WR004787","article-title":"Quantifying surface water\u2013groundwater interactions using time series analysis of streambed thermal records: Method development","volume":"42","author":"Hatch","year":"2006","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2006.12.003","article-title":"Temporal and spatial variability of groundwater\u2013surface water fluxes: Development and application of an analytical method using temperature time series","volume":"336","author":"Keery","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.11.053","article-title":"Automated calculation of vertical pore-water flux from field temperature time series using the VFLUX method and computer program","volume":"420","author":"Gordon","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-16-0086.1","article-title":"Soil apparent thermal diffusivity estimated by conduction and by conduction-convection heat transfer models","volume":"18","author":"Tong","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Van Duin, R.H.A. (1963). The influence of Soil Management on the Temperature Wave near the Surface, Institute for Land and Water Management Research. Technical Bulletin 29."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1859","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj2014.05.0218","article-title":"An empirical model for estimating soil thermal conductivity from texture, water content, and bulk density","volume":"78","author":"Lu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soil. Sci. Soc. Amer. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1111\/ejss.12856","article-title":"Thermal property values of a central Iowa soil as functions of soil water content and bulk density or of soil air content","volume":"71","author":"Tong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1029\/JZ066i002p00571","article-title":"The theory of heat flux meters","volume":"66","author":"Philip","year":"1961","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1973.03615995003700020009x","article-title":"Analysis and performance of an improved soil heat flux transducer","volume":"37","author":"Fuchs","year":"1973","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.2136\/vzj2003.5800","article-title":"Errors in heat flux measurement by flux plates of contrasting design and thermal conductivity","volume":"2","author":"Sauer","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vadose Zone J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1175\/JHM-D-18-0243.1","article-title":"Improving soil heat flux accuracy with the Philip correction technique","volume":"20","author":"Tong","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1923(98)00090-2","article-title":"Calibration of soil heat flux sensors","volume":"92","author":"Bastings","year":"1998","journal-title":"Agr. Forest Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.2136\/sssaj1966.03615995003000040010x","article-title":"Evaluation of the evaporation zone in soil by measurement of heat flux","volume":"30","author":"Gardner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Farouki, O.T. (1981). Thermal Properties of Soils, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab.","DOI":"10.21236\/ADA111734"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Patten, H.E. (1909). Heat Transference in Soils, U.S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Soils. Bulletin 59."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1007\/s00376-009-8198-0","article-title":"Variability of soil moisture and its relationship with surface albedo and soil thermal parameters over the Loess Plateau","volume":"26","author":"Guan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1080\/08916152.2018.1535528","article-title":"Analysis of volumetric unfrozen water contents in freezing soils","volume":"32","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Heat Transfer."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2136\/vzj2014.12.0179","article-title":"Determining soil ice contents during freezing and thawing with thermo-time domain reflectometry","volume":"14","author":"Tian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vadose Zone J."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1111\/ejss.12366","article-title":"A simplified de Vries-based model to estimate thermal conductivity of unfrozen and frozen soil","volume":"67","author":"Tian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Soil Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.still.2018.12.026","article-title":"Thermal properties of sandy and peat soils under unfrozen and frozen conditions","volume":"189","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soil Till. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coldregions.2021.103332","article-title":"Feasibility study on ice content measurement of frozen soil using actively heated FBG sensors","volume":"189","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cold Reg. Sci. Technol."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/17\/4238\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:18:59Z","timestamp":1760141939000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/17\/4238"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,28]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14174238"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14174238","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2072-4292"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,28]]}}}