{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,27]],"date-time":"2026-05-27T22:04:20Z","timestamp":1779919460962,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,16]],"date-time":"2022-09-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663286400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"JSPS KAKENHI","award":["JP20H02395"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP20H02395"]}]},{"name":"SECOM Science and Technology Foundation","award":["JP20H02395"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP20H02395"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Early nondestructive inspection of rebar corrosion in reinforced concrete structures is important, but a practical, accurate, high-speed, and high-resolution method has not yet been proposed. We have proposed a vibro-Doppler radar (VDR) method for quantitative evaluation of rebar corrosion based on vibration displacement of a rebar sinusoidally vibrated by an excitation coil. However, this method is not practical because it is not quick enough, requiring two minutes for a measurement at one point. In this paper, a VDR system based on a pulse radar, which is 100 times faster than the conventional system, was developed, and its effectiveness was verified using a concrete specimen. As a result, it was found that a 30-cm section could be scanned in about 2 min. Furthermore, the vibration displacements spatially distributed on the rebar were monitored while the rebar was corroded by electrolytic corrosion tests. As a result, it was found that the vibration displacement increased locally with a width of a few centimeters, and their positions corresponded to the positions of sectional loss of rebar due to corrosion, indicating that this method can be used for nondestructive evaluation of localized rebar corrosion.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14184645","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,19]],"date-time":"2022-09-19T04:49:22Z","timestamp":1663562962000},"page":"4645","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Nondestructive Evaluation of Localized Rebar Corrosion in Concrete Using Vibro-Radar Based on Pulse Doppler Imaging"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Takashi","family":"Miwa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Electronics and Informatics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Gunma University, Tenjin-cho 1-5-1, Kiryu 376-8515, Gunma, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuri","family":"Nakazawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Electronics and Informatics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Gunma University, Tenjin-cho 1-5-1, Kiryu 376-8515, Gunma, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Diagnosis, inspection, testing and repair of reinforced concrete structures","volume":"2","author":"Grantham","year":"2003","journal-title":"Adv. Concr. Technol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1109\/58.265832","article-title":"A survey of developments in ultrasonic NDE of concrete","volume":"41","author":"Popovics","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012015","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/357\/1\/012015","article-title":"Non-destructive assessment of concrete deterioration by ultrasonic pulse velocity: A review","volume":"357","author":"Ndagi","year":"2019","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"04020472","article-title":"Mechanical properties and air permeability of concrete containing waste tyres extracts","volume":"3","author":"Shaaban","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Mater. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-8352(02)00142-0","article-title":"Data mining corrosion from eddy current non-destructive tests","volume":"43","author":"Brencea","year":"2002","journal-title":"Comput. Ind. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012013","DOI":"10.1088\/1757-899X\/289\/1\/012013","article-title":"A technique for predicting steel corrosion resistance","volume":"289","author":"Novikov","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2021.109655","article-title":"Magnetic force induced vibration evaluation (M5) method for frequency analysis of rebar-debonding in reinforced concrete","volume":"182","author":"Frankowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2015). Standard Test Method for Corrosion Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in Concrete (Standard No. ASTM C876-15). Available online: https:\/\/www.astm.org\/Standards\/C876.htm."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02481526","article-title":"Half-cell potential measurements\u2014Potential mapping on rein-forced concrete structures","volume":"36","author":"Elsener","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714501","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/714501","article-title":"Methodology for assessing the probability of corrosion in concrete structures on the basis of half-cell potential and concrete resistivity measurements","volume":"2013","author":"Sadowski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1590\/s1983-41952017000400005","article-title":"Corrosion potential: Influence of moisture, water-cement ratio, chloride content and concrete cover","volume":"10","author":"Medeiros","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. IBRACON Estrut. Mater."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2428496","article-title":"Electrochemical polarization I. A theoretical analysis of shape of polarization curves","volume":"104","author":"Stern","year":"1957","journal-title":"J. Electrochem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1452-3981(23)17049-0","article-title":"Corrosion monitoring of reinforced concrete structures\u2014A review","volume":"2","author":"Song","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Figueira, R.B. (2017). Electrochemical sensors for monitoring the corrosion conditions of reinforced concrete structures: A review. Appl. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/app7111157"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"MacDonald, D.D., El-Tantawy, Y.A., Rocha-Filho, R.C., and Urquidi-Macdonald, M. (1994). Evaluation of electrochemical impedance techniques for detecting corrosion on rebar in reinforced concrete. Research Report on Strategic Highway Research Program, Available online: http:\/\/onlinepubs.trb.org\/onlinepubs\/shrp\/SHRP-91-524.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.047","article-title":"Application of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to monitor the corrosion of reinforced concrete: A new approach","volume":"111","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2019.117205","article-title":"Electrochemical behavior of mild and corrosion resistant concrete reinforcing steels","volume":"232","author":"Sohail","year":"2020","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Sansalone, M., and Streett, W.B. (1997). Impact-Echo: Nondestructive Testing of Concrete and Masonry, Bullbrier Press."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"112","article-title":"A review of ultrasonic application on non-destructive testing method for concrete structure","volume":"70","author":"Ahmad","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Teknol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frankowski, P.K., and Chady, T. (2022). Impact of magnetization on the evaluation of reinforced concrete structures using DC magnetic methods. Materials, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma15030857"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shull, P.J. (2002). Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques and Applications, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203911068"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.3233\/JAE-2007-841","article-title":"Concrete rebars inspection by eddy current testing","volume":"25","author":"Rubinacci","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Electromagn. Mech."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Alcantara, J.N.P., Da Silva, F.M., Guimar\u00e3es, M.T., and Pereira, M.D. (2015). Corrosion assessment of steel bars used in reinforced concrete structures by means of eddy current testing. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16010015"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-010-0002-4","article-title":"Corrosion detection in reinforced concrete using induction heating and infrared thermography","volume":"1","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-012-0133-0","article-title":"Nondestructive corrosion detection in RC through integrated heat induction and IR thermography","volume":"31","author":"Baek","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.3846\/jcem.2018.6186","article-title":"Infrared thermography for detecting defects in concrete structures","volume":"24","author":"Sirca","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Civ. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Annan, A.P. (2009). Electromagnetic Principles of Ground Penetrating Radar. Ground Penetrating Radar: Theory and Applications, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53348-7.00001-6"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"8536850","article-title":"An experimental study for quantitative estimation of rebar corrosion in concrete using ground penetrating radar","volume":"2016","author":"Hasan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Eng."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5389829","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/5389829","article-title":"Experimental assessment of rebar corrosion in concrete slab using ground penetrating radar (GPR)","volume":"2018","author":"Zaki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Corros."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Te\u0161i\u0107, K., Bari\u010devi\u0107, A., and Serdar, M. (2021). Non-destructive corrosion inspection of reinforced concrete using ground-penetrating radar: A review. Materials, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma14040975"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-007-9282-5","article-title":"Detection of chlorides and moisture in concrete structures with ground penetrating radar","volume":"41","author":"Hugenschmidt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.156","article-title":"Ground penetrating radar wave attenuation models for estimation of moisture and chloride content in concrete slab","volume":"106","author":"Senin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1664","article-title":"Radar image-reconstruction in layered inhomogeneous media by discrete model-fitting method","volume":"I\u2013III","author":"Wakayama","year":"1994","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Propag. Soc. Int. Symp."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.9746\/sicetr1965.39.432","article-title":"Non-destructive inspection of concrete structures using an electromagnetic wave (radar) based on a signal propagation model","volume":"39","author":"Tanaka","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trans. Soc. Instrum. Control Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shen, R., Zhao, Y., Hu, S., Li, B., and Bi, W. (2021). Reverse-time migration imaging of ground-penetrating radar in NDT of reinforced concrete structures. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13102020"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"26","article-title":"Nondestructive evaluation of air voids in concrete structures using microwave radar technique","volume":"15","author":"Takayama","year":"2021","journal-title":"SICE J. Control Meas. Syst. Integr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miwa, T. (2021). Non-destructive and quantitative evaluation of rebar corrosion by a vibro-Doppler radar method. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21072546"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Munakata, K., Kamada, T., Uchida, S., Mae, H., and Minezawa, H. (July, January 30). Nondestructive evaluation of deterioration around rebar based on elastic waves generated by electromagnetic force. Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Nondestructive Testing in Civil Engineering, Nantes, France. Available online: https:\/\/www.ndt.net\/article\/ndtce2009\/papers\/183.pdf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2046","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2013.2256924","article-title":"A review on recent advances in Doppler radar sensors for noncontact healthcare monitoring","volume":"61","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van, N.T.P., Tang, L., Demir, V., Hasan, S.F., Minh, N.D., and Mukhopadhyay, S. (2019). Review-microwave radar sensing systems for search and rescue purposes. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19132879"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2594","DOI":"10.1109\/TAP.2010.2050424","article-title":"A through-dielectric radar imaging system","volume":"58","author":"Charvat","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/18\/4645\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:33:17Z","timestamp":1760142797000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/18\/4645"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,16]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14184645"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14184645","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,16]]}}}