{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T05:08:44Z","timestamp":1772341724342,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,17]],"date-time":"2022-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663372800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extreme events such as Marine Heat Waves (MHWs) and Low Chlorophyll-a (LChl-a) in the ocean have devastating impacts on the marine environment, particularly when they occur simultaneously (i.e., the compound of MHWs and LChl-a events). In this study, we investigate the spatiotemporal variability of MHWs and LChl-a events in the Arabian and Omani Gulf. For this purpose, we used satellite-based high-resolution observations of SST (0.05\u00b0 \u00d7 0.05\u00b0; from 1982 to 2020) and chlorophyll-a concentration data (0.04\u00b0 \u00d7 0.04\u00b0; from 1998 to 2020). Hourly air temperature, wind, and heat flux components from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) reanalysis (ERA5) were used to explain the link between these extreme events and atmospheric forcings. Moreover, our results revealed that the annual frequency of MHW and LChl-a is related to the El Ni\u00f1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). The results revealed an average SST warming trend of about 0.44 \u00b1 0.06 \u00b0C\/decade and 0.32 \u00b1 0.04 \u00b0C\/decade for the Arabian Gulf (AG) and the Gulf of Oman (OG), respectively. This warming rate was accompanied by MHW frequency and duration trends of 0.97 events\/decade and 2.3 days\/decade, respectively, for the entire study region from 1982 to 2020. The highest annual MHW frequencies were recorded in 2010 (6 events) and 2020 (5 events) associated with LChl-a frequency values of 4 and 2, respectively. La Ni\u00f1a events in 1999, 2010, 2011, and 2020 were associated with higher frequencies of MHW and LChl-a. The positive phase of IOD coincides with high MHW frequency in 2018 and 2019. The longest compound MHW and LChl-a event with a duration of 42 days was recorded in 2020 at OG. This extreme compound event was associated with wind stress reduction. Our results provide initial insights into the spatiotemporal variability of the compound MHW and LChl-a events that occurred in the AG and OG.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14184653","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,19]],"date-time":"2022-09-19T04:49:22Z","timestamp":1663562962000},"page":"4653","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Responses of Satellite Chlorophyll-a to the Extreme Sea Surface Temperatures over the Arabian and Omani Gulf"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8534-8492","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manal","family":"Hamdeno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Oceanography Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21500, Egypt"},{"name":"Freshwater and Oceanic Science Unit of Research (FOCUS), University of Li\u00e8ge, 4000 Li\u00e8ge, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7206-4113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hazem","family":"Nagy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oceanography Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21500, Egypt"},{"name":"Marine Institute, Rinville, H91 R673 Galway, Ireland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7683-5149","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omneya","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oceanography Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21500, Egypt"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6927-960X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bayoumy","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Oceanography Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21500, Egypt"},{"name":"Department of Arctic Geophysics, University Centre in Svalbard, 9171 Longyearbyen, Norway"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-03732-9","article-title":"Longer and more frequent marine heatwaves over the past century","volume":"9","author":"Oliver","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04573-9","article-title":"Global seasonal forecasts of marine heatwaves","volume":"604","author":"Jacox","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuroda, H., and Setou, T. (2021). Extensive Marine Heatwaves at the Sea Surface in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean in Summer 2021. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193989"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ibrahim, O., Mohamed, B., and Nagy, H. (2021). Spatial Variability and Trends of Marine Heat Waves in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea over 39 Years. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9060643"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamed, B., Nagy, H., and Ibrahim, O. (2021). Spatiotemporal Variability and Trends of Marine Heat Waves in the Red Sea over 38 Years. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9080842"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohamed, B., Ibrahim, O., and Nagy, H. (2022). Sea Surface Temperature Variability and Marine Heatwaves in the Black Sea. Remote Sens., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14102383"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aan8048","article-title":"Spatial and temporal patterns of mass bleaching of corals in the Anthropocene","volume":"359","author":"Hughes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2008.01823.x","article-title":"Mass mortality in Northwestern Mediterranean rocky benthic communities: Effects of the 2003 heat wave","volume":"15","author":"Garrabou","year":"2009","journal-title":"Glob. Chang. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571836","DOI":"10.3389\/fclim.2020.571836","article-title":"Climate Extreme Seeds a New Domoic Acid Hotspot on the US West Coast","volume":"2","author":"Trainer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Clim."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3414","DOI":"10.1002\/2015GL063306","article-title":"Causes and impacts of the 2014 warm anomaly in the NE Pacific","volume":"42","author":"Bond","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-18-2119-2021","article-title":"Compound high-temperature and low-chlorophyll extremes in the ocean over the satellite period","volume":"18","author":"Zscheischler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1038\/s41558-019-0412-1","article-title":"Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services","volume":"9","author":"Smale","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2020.00147","article-title":"Editorial: Advances in Understanding Marine Heatwaves and Their Impacts","volume":"7","author":"Benthuysen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00499","article-title":"Extreme Marine Heatwaves Alter Kelp Forest Community Near Its Equatorward Distribution Limit","volume":"6","author":"Beas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2013.27","article-title":"Fisheries Management in a Changing Climate: Lessons From the 2012 Ocean Heat Wave in the Northwest Atlantic","volume":"26","author":"Mills","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2015.12.014","article-title":"A hierarchical approach to defining marine heatwaves","volume":"141","author":"Hobday","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate3082","article-title":"Multi-Year Persistence of the 2014\/15 North Pacific Marine Heatwave","volume":"6","author":"Mantua","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576240","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2020.576240","article-title":"Marine Heatwave of Sea Surface Temperature of the Oyashio Region in Summer in 2010\u20132016","volume":"7","author":"Miyama","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2018.205","article-title":"Categorizing and Naming Marine Heatwaves","volume":"31","author":"Hobday","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rivetti, I., Fraschetti, S., Lionello, P., Zambianchi, E., and Boero, F. (2014). Global Warming and Mass Mortalities of Benthic Invertebrates in the Mediterranean Sea. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0115655"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1002\/wea.3296","article-title":"The abrupt increase in the Aegean sea surface temperature during June 2007\u2014A marine heatwave event?","volume":"74","author":"Mavrakis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Weather"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9813","DOI":"10.1029\/2019GL082933","article-title":"Past Variability of Mediterranean Sea Marine Heatwaves","volume":"46","author":"Darmaraki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-019-04661-z","article-title":"Future evolution of Marine Heatwaves in the Mediterranean Sea","volume":"53","author":"Darmaraki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16101","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms16101","article-title":"The Unprecedented 2015\/16 Tasman Sea Marine Heatwave","volume":"8","author":"Oliver","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alawad, K., Al-Subhi, A., Alsaafani, M., and Alraddadi, T. (2020). Atmospheric Forcing of the High and Low Extremes in the Sea Surface Temperature over the Red Sea and Associated Chlorophyll-a Concentration. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12142227"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821646","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.821646","article-title":"Marine Heatwaves Characteristics in the Barents Sea Based on High Resolution Satellite Data (1982\u20132020)","volume":"9","author":"Mohamed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021JC017427","DOI":"10.1029\/2021JC017427","article-title":"Genesis and Trends in Marine Heatwaves Over the Tropical Indian Ocean and Their Interaction with the Indian Summer Monsoon","volume":"127","author":"Saranya","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.5194\/os-18-639-2022","article-title":"Marine heatwaves in the Arabian Sea","volume":"18","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hopley, D. (2011). Persian\/Arabian Gulf Coral Reefs. Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-2639-2"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C12","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JC001881","article-title":"Observations of seasonal exchange through the Straits of Hormuz and the inferred heat and freshwater budgets of the Persian Gulf","volume":"108","author":"Johns","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9958257","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/9958257","article-title":"Variability of SST and ILD in the Arabian Sea and Sea of Oman in Association with the Monsoon Cycle","volume":"2021","author":"Khan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riegl, B.M., Purkis, S.J., Al-Cibahy, A.S., Abdel-Moati, M.A., and Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2011). Present Limits to Heat-Adaptability in Corals and Population-Level Responses to Climate Extremes. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0024802"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809355","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.809355","article-title":"Atmosphere-Ocean Coupled Variability in the Arabian\/Persian Gulf","volume":"9","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1080\/14634988.2020.1798157","article-title":"Marine life mortalities and Harmful Algal Blooms in the Northern Arabian Gulf","volume":"23","author":"Polikarpov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4568","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-04865-5","article-title":"Past summer upwelling events in the Gulf of Oman derived from a coral geochemical record","volume":"7","author":"Watanabe","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"449","article-title":"Chlorophyll a as a measure of seasonal coupling between phytoplankton and the monsoon periods in the Gulf of Oman","volume":"44","author":"Piontkovski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquat. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2005.03.008","article-title":"Monsoon-driven biogeochemical processes in the Arabian Sea","volume":"65","author":"Wiggert","year":"2005","journal-title":"Prog. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.5670\/oceanog.2016.32","article-title":"Biological Impacts of the 2013\u20132015 Warm-Water Anomaly in the Northeast Pacific: Winners, Losers, and the Future","volume":"29","author":"Cavole","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oceanography"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1002\/wcc.252","article-title":"A compound event framework for understanding extreme impacts","volume":"5","author":"Leonard","year":"2014","journal-title":"WIREs Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ipcc (2022). The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/9781009157964"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954102020000401","article-title":"Extreme summer marine heatwaves increase chlorophyll a in the Southern Ocean","volume":"32","author":"Montie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Antarct. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"064034","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-9326\/ac70ec","article-title":"Global chlorophyll responses to marine heatwaves in satellite ocean color","volume":"17","author":"Noh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1080\/02723646.2019.1618231","article-title":"Long-Term Change of Surface Temperature in Water Bodies around Iran\u2014Caspian Sea, Gulf of Oman, and Persian Gulf\u2014Using 2001\u20132015 MODIS Data","volume":"41","author":"Ghasemifar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2020.111267","article-title":"Trend analysis and variations of sea surface temperature and chlorophyll-a in the Persian Gulf","volume":"156","author":"Moradi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111766","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2020.111766","article-title":"World record extreme sea surface temperatures in the northwestern Arabian\/Persian Gulf verified by in situ measurements","volume":"161","author":"Alosairi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceano.2021.07.001","article-title":"Validation and statistical analysis of the Group for High Resolution Sea Surface Temperature data in the Arabian Gulf","volume":"63","author":"Nesterov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oceanologia"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"139","article-title":"Satellite-Measured Chlorophyll Distribution in the Arabian Gulf: Spatial, Seasonal and Inter-Annual Variability","volume":"2","author":"Nezlin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Oceans Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmarsys.2010.03.003","article-title":"Satellite monitoring of climatic factors regulating phytoplankton variability in the Arabian (Persian) Gulf","volume":"82","author":"Nezlin","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2015.07.018","article-title":"Spatio-temporal variability of SST and Chlorophyll-a from MODIS data in the Persian Gulf","volume":"98","author":"Moradi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussein, K., Al Abdouli, K., Ghebreyesus, D., Petchprayoon, P., Al Hosani, N., and Sharif, H.O. (2021). Spatiotemporal Variability of Chlorophyll-a and Sea Surface Temperature, and Their Relationship with Bathymetry over the Coasts of UAE. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13132447"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105840","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocecoaman.2021.105840","article-title":"Characterizing algal blooms in a shallow & a deep channel","volume":"213","author":"Nelson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean Coast. Manag."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00805","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00805","article-title":"Internal Waves on the Continental Shelf of the Northwestern Arabian Gulf","volume":"6","author":"Anis","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C7","DOI":"10.1029\/2010JC006505","article-title":"New CNES-CLS09 Global Mean Dynamic Topography Computed from the Combination of GRACE Data, Altimetry, and in Situ Measurements","volume":"116","author":"Rio","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.5194\/os-17-789-2021","article-title":"The new CNES-CLS18 global mean dynamic topography","volume":"17","author":"Mulet","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1016\/0198-0149(90)90080-F","article-title":"The Somali current at the equator: Annual cycle of currents and transports in the upper 1000 m and connection to neighbouring latitudes","volume":"37","author":"Schott","year":"1990","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part A Oceanogr. Res. Pap."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1029\/91JC02225","article-title":"Interannual variability in phytoplankton blooms observed in the northwestern Arabian Sea during the southwest monsoon","volume":"97","author":"Brock","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/0967-0645(93)90049-S","article-title":"Biogeochemical cycling in the northwestern Indian Ocean: A brief overview","volume":"40","author":"Burkill","year":"1993","journal-title":"Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-4343(90)90022-E","article-title":"A shore-based survey of upwelling along the coast of Dhofar region, southern Oman","volume":"10","author":"Savidge","year":"1990","journal-title":"Cont. Shelf Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.5194\/os-2-27-2006","article-title":"The circulation of the Persian Gulf: A numerical study","volume":"2","author":"Sadrinasab","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ocean Sci."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"3513","article-title":"Water mass transformation and overturning circulation in the Arabian Gulf","volume":"51","author":"Song","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4509","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.4302","article-title":"Shamals and climate variability in the Northern Arabian\/Persian Gulf from 1973 to 2012","volume":"35","author":"Anis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11219","DOI":"10.1029\/92JC00841","article-title":"A Numerical Investigation of Circulation in the Arabian Gulf","volume":"97","author":"Chao","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.901","article-title":"The Persian Gulf Summertime Low-Level Jet over Sloping Terrain: The Persian Gulf Summertime Low-Level Jet","volume":"138","author":"Giannakopoulou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Good, S., Fiedler, E., Mao, C., Martin, M.J., Maycock, A., Reid, R., Roberts-Jones, J., Searle, T., Waters, J., and While, J. (2020). The Current Configuration of the Ostia System for Operational Production of Foundation Sea Surface Temperature and Ice Concentration Analyses. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12040720"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3653","DOI":"10.1175\/MWR-D-19-0404.1","article-title":"Simulated Tropical Precipitation Assessed across Three Major Phases of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP)","volume":"148","author":"Fiedler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mon. Weather Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.3803","article-title":"The ERA5 global reanalysis","volume":"146","author":"Hersbach","year":"2020","journal-title":"Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8179","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0836.1","article-title":"Extended Reconstructed Sea Surface Temperature, Version 5 (ERSSTv5): Upgrades, Validations, and Intercomparisons","volume":"30","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clim."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1038\/43854","article-title":"A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean","volume":"401","author":"Saji","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.01124","article-title":"A MATLAB toolbox to detect and analyze marine heatwaves","volume":"4","author":"Zhao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Open Source Softw."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1379","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1968.10480934","article-title":"Estimates of the Regression Coefficient Based on Kendall\u2019s Tau","volume":"63","author":"Sen","year":"1968","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-1694(97)00125-X","article-title":"A modified Mann-Kendall trend test for autocorrelated data","volume":"204","author":"Hamed","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00014","DOI":"10.3389\/feart.2020.00014","article-title":"Re-evaluation of the Power of the Mann-Kendall Test for Detecting Monotonic Trends in Hydrometeorological Time Series","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.5194\/angeo-21-3-2003","article-title":"The Mediterranean ocean forecasting system: First phase of implementation (1998\u20132001)","volume":"21","author":"Pinardi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dynatmoce.2017.10.003","article-title":"A nested pre-operational model for the Egyptian shelf zone: Model configuration and validation\/calibration","volume":"80","author":"Nagy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dyn. Atmos. Oceans"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagy, H., Mohamed, B., and Ibrahim, O. (2021). Variability of Heat and Water Fluxes in the Red Sea Using ERA5 Data (1981\u20132020). J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse9111276"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D19","DOI":"10.1029\/2003JD004457","article-title":"Calculation of radiative fluxes from the surface to top of atmosphere based on ISCCP and other global data sets: Refinements of the radiative transfer model and the input data","volume":"109","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-011-1115-0","article-title":"TropFlux: Air-sea fluxes for the global tropical oceans\u2014description and evaluation","volume":"38","author":"Kumar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clim. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C4","DOI":"10.1029\/2002JC001418","article-title":"A new formula for determining the atmospheric longwave flux at the ocean surface at mid-high latitudes","volume":"108","author":"Josey","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1482","DOI":"10.1007\/s00585-000-1482-z","article-title":"Climatic Features of the Mediterranean Sea Detected by the Analysis of the Longwave Radiative Bulk Formulae","volume":"18","author":"Schiano","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0924-7963(98)90007-0","article-title":"A model study of air\u2013sea interactions in the Mediterranean Sea","volume":"18","author":"Castellari","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Mar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2501","DOI":"10.1029\/94JC02496","article-title":"Longwave radiation budget in the Mediterranean Sea","volume":"100","author":"Bignami","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5119","DOI":"10.1029\/93JC03069","article-title":"Heat flux parameterizations for the Mediterranean Sea: The role of atmospheric aerosols and constraints from the water budget","volume":"99","author":"Gilman","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagy, H., Lyons, K., Nolan, G., Cure, M., and Dabrowski, T. (2020). A Regional Operational Model for the North East Atlantic: Model Configuration and Validation. J. Mar. Sci. Eng., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/jmse8090673"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0485(1983)013<1093:NMWSOT>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Normal Monthly Wind Stress Over the World Ocean with Error Estimates","volume":"13","author":"Hellerman","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Phys. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Noori, R., Tian, F., Berndtsson, R., Abbasi, M.R., Naseh, M.V., Modabberi, A., Soltani, A., and Kl\u00f8ve, B. (2019). Recent and future trends in sea surface temperature across the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0212790"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/501602","article-title":"Comparative Analysis of Sea Surface Temperature Pattern in the Eastern and Western Gulfs of Arabian Sea and the Red Sea in Recent Past Using Satellite Data","volume":"2013","author":"Nandkeolyar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.2307\/3515245","article-title":"Monsoon Climate and Arabian Sea Coastal Upwelling Recorded in Massive Corals from Southern Oman","volume":"11","author":"Tudhope","year":"1996","journal-title":"PALAIOS"},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"1","article-title":"Overview of Wind Climatology for the Gulf of Oman and the Northern Arabian Sea","volume":"8","author":"Chaichitehrani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Fluid Dyn."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2624","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-10206-z","article-title":"A global assessment of marine heatwaves and their drivers","volume":"10","author":"Holbrook","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19359","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-75445-3","article-title":"Drivers and impacts of the most extreme marine heatwave events","volume":"10","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/18\/4653\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:33:38Z","timestamp":1760142818000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/18\/4653"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,17]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14184653"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14184653","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,17]]}}}