{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,11]],"date-time":"2026-02-11T14:44:57Z","timestamp":1770821097470,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]],"date-time":"2022-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663718400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["41877173"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41877173"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["U2167211"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U2167211"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The low spatial resolution of Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) data limits their application in practical groundwater resource management. To overcome this limitation, this study developed a dynamic downscaling method based on a model using groundwater storage anomaly (GWSA) data to study groundwater storage changes in an inland arid region. The groundwater storage model was calibrated using publicly accessible data at a spatial resolution of 1\u00b0. The constructed model had a satisfactory fitting effect in both the calibration and validation periods, with correlation coefficients over 0.60, in general, and a root mean square error of less than 1.00 cm equivalent water height (EWH). It was found that the hydraulic gradient coefficient was the most sensitive parameter, whereas the boundary condition had an obvious influence on the simulated GWSA compared to the different forcing data. The model was then refined at a higher resolution (0.05\u00b0) using driving data to obtain downscaled GWSA data. The downscaled results had a similar pattern to the GRACE-derived GWSA and reflected the spatial heterogeneity across the basin scale and subregion scales. The downscaled GWSA shows that the groundwater storage had an overall downward trend during the period from 2003 to 2019 and the annual decline rates ranged from 0.22 to 0.32 cm\/year in four subregions. A four-month time lag between the field-observed and downscaled GWSA was observed downstream of the study area. This study provides an applicable method for assessing groundwater storage changes for groundwater management at the local scale.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/rs14194719","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,22]],"date-time":"2022-09-22T23:07:55Z","timestamp":1663888075000},"page":"4719","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Enhanced Understanding of Groundwater Storage Changes under the Influence of River Basin Governance Using GRACE Data and Downscaling Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Jianchong","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation of Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3888-6324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Litang","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation of Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Powerchina Huadong Engineering Corporation Limited, Hangzhou 311122, China"}]},{"given":"Kangning","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation of Ministry of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate1744","article-title":"Ground water and climate change","volume":"3","author":"Taylor","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Clim. Chang."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo2943","article-title":"Global aquifers dominated by fossil groundwaters but wells vulnerable to modern contamination","volume":"10","author":"Jasechko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21403","article-title":"Groundwater depletion embedded in international food trade","volume":"543","author":"Dalin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.150635","article-title":"Assessing the utility of remote sensing data to accurately estimate changes in groundwater storage","volume":"807","author":"Ahamed","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.1038\/nature08238","article-title":"Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India","volume":"460","author":"Rodell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1099192","article-title":"GRACE measurements of mass variability in the Earth system","volume":"305","author":"Tapley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7564","DOI":"10.1029\/2018WR024618","article-title":"Global GRACE data assimilation for groundwater and drought monitoring: Advances and challenges","volume":"55","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1002\/wrcr.20192","article-title":"Evaluation of groundwater depletion in North China using the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) data and ground-based measurements","volume":"49","author":"Feng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1029\/2006GL026962","article-title":"A comparison of terrestrial water storage variations from GRACE with in situ measurements from Illinois","volume":"33","author":"Swenson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L16401","DOI":"10.1029\/2010GL046442","article-title":"Satellites measure recent rates of groundwater depletion in California\u2019s Central Valley","volume":"38","author":"Famiglietti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2995","DOI":"10.1029\/98WR02577","article-title":"Statistical downscaling of general circulation model output: A comparison of methods","volume":"34","author":"Wilby","year":"1998","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1038\/s41597-021-00862-6","article-title":"Downscaling GRACE total water storage change using partial least squares regression","volume":"8","author":"Vishwakarma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Data."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"133","article-title":"Statistical downscaling of GRACE-derived terrestrial water storage using satellite and GLDAS products","volume":"70","author":"Ning","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5973","DOI":"10.1029\/2017JD027468","article-title":"Statistical downscaling of GRACE-derived groundwater storage using ET data in the North China plain","volume":"123","author":"Yin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res. Atmos."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miro, M.E., and Famiglietti, J.S. (2018). Downscaling GRACE remote sensing datasets to high-resolution groundwater storage change maps of California\u2019s Central Valley. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10010143"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., He, Q., Liu, K., Li, J., and Jing, C. (2019). Downscaling of GRACE-derived groundwater storage based on the random forest model. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11242979"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seyoum, W.M., Kwon, D., and Milewski, A.M. (2019). Downscaling GRACE TWSA data into high-resolution groundwater level anomaly using machine learning-based models in a glacial aquifer system. Remote Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11070824"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JHM951.1","article-title":"Assimilation of GRACE terrestrial water storage data into a land surface model: Results for the Mississippi River Basin","volume":"9","author":"Zaitchik","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Hydrometeorol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2020WR028944","DOI":"10.1029\/2020WR028944","article-title":"A self-calibration variance-component model for spatial downscaling of GRACE observations using land surface model outputs","volume":"57","author":"Zhong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Resour. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1305","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-015-1278-6","article-title":"Calibration of a large-scale groundwater flow model using GRACE data: A case study in the Qaidam Basin, China","volume":"23","author":"Hu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhydrol.2011.10.025","article-title":"Toward calibration of regional groundwater models using GRACE data","volume":"422","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Hydrol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.1002\/hyp.7333","article-title":"Coupled surface water-groundwater model and its application in the arid Shiyang River basin, China","volume":"23","author":"Hu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hydrol. Process. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2015.07.003","article-title":"Deriving scaling factors using a global hydrological model to restore GRACE total water storage changes for China\u2019s Yangtze River Basin","volume":"168","author":"Long","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00175354","article-title":"A genetic algorithm tutorial","volume":"4","author":"Whitley","year":"1994","journal-title":"Stat. Comput."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1367","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2220-7","article-title":"Geostatistical analysis of temporal and spatial variations in groundwater levels and quality in the Minqin oasis, Northwest China","volume":"70","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1084","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.04.177","article-title":"The critical role of local policy effects in arid watershed groundwater resources sustainability: A case study in the Minqin oasis, China","volume":"601","author":"Hao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6584.2007.00366.x","article-title":"Neural networks to simulate regional ground water levels affected by human activities","volume":"46","author":"Feng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Groundwater"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Y., Bie, Q., Lu, H., and He, L. (2018). Spatio-temporal changes of oases in the Hexi Corridor over the past 30 years. Sustainability, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/su10124489"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s11430-007-2001-9","article-title":"Temporal and spatial dynamical simulation of groundwater characteristics in Minqin Oasis","volume":"50","author":"Xiao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sci. China Ser. D-Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1617","article-title":"Regional strategies for the accelerating global problem of groundwater depletion","volume":"5","author":"Gleeson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135829","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.135829","article-title":"Evaluation of groundwater sustainability in the arid Hexi Corridor of Northwestern China, using GRACE, GLDAS and measured groundwater data products","volume":"705","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Hu, L., Sun, K., Yang, Z., Sun, J., and Yin, W. (2021). Improved understanding of groundwater storage changes under the influence of river basin governance in northwestern China using GRACE data. Remote Sens., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13142672"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1080\/07900627.2017.1417115","article-title":"Groundwater regulation in case of overdraft: National groundwater policy implementation in north-west China","volume":"35","author":"Aarnoudse","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Water Resour. D"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abou Zaki, N., Torabi Haghighi, A., Rossi, P.M., Tourian, M.J., and Klove, B. (2018). Monitoring groundwater storage depletion using gravity recovery and climate experiment (GRACE) data in the semi-arid catchments. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 1\u201321.","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-2018-471"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2017.06.026","article-title":"GRACE groundwater drought index: Evaluation of California Central Valley groundwater drought","volume":"198","author":"Thomas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, X., Xu, C., Wen, Y., and Li, W. (2018). Monitoring groundwater storage changes in the Loess Plateau using GRACE satellite gravity data, hydrological models and coal mining data. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10040605"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-017-5846-1","article-title":"Integrated groundwater resource management in Indus Basin using satellite gravimetry and physical modeling tools","volume":"189","author":"Iqbal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."}],"container-title":["Remote Sensing"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/19\/4719\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:36:39Z","timestamp":1760142999000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2072-4292\/14\/19\/4719"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10]]}},"alternative-id":["rs14194719"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/rs14194719","relation":{},"ISSN":["2072-4292"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2072-4292","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,21]]}}}